Medical Conditions

Acute Kidney Failure in Cats

Acute renal failure (ARF) or acute kidney failure refers to the sudden failure of the kidneys to perform normal filtration duties. ARF leads to accumulation of toxins and other metabolic wastes in the bloodstream, dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, and disturbances in the acid-base balance of the blood. The initial prognosis is guarded for all cases of ARF. If the cause is an infection, there is a better prognosis than if the cause is a toxic substance.

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Allergies in Cats

An allergy occurs when the cat's immune system overreacts or is hypersensitive to foreign substances called allergens. There are four main types of allergies in cats, namely flea allergy, atopic dermatitis (atopy), food allergy, and contact allergy. They share common physical expressions and signs in cats, and each has unique features.

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Anal Sac Disease in Cats

The anal sacs are two small pouches located on either side of the anus. The walls of the sac produce a foul-smelling fluid that is released when a cat passes a bowel movement. The anal sacs or their ducts can become inflamed or infected due to a variety of causes. Most cats will respond well to pain relief medications and antibiotics. If a cat has several episodes of anal sac disease, and dietary changes and supplements or medication do not relieve the problem, the anal sacs can be removed surgically.

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Anemia in Cats

Anemia is a medical term referring to a reduced number of circulating red blood cells, hemoglobin, or both. It is not a specific disease but rather it is the result of some other disease process or condition. The most easily observed and common clinical sign of anemia is a loss of the normal pink color of the gums. Several tests are performed on blood samples to diagnose anemia. If your cat's anemia is so severe that it is life threatening, a blood transfusion will be needed.

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Asthma and Bronchitis in Cats

Asthma or chronic bronchitis is a condition where the lower airways of cats become narrow and produce excess mucus in response to a noxious stimulus such as cigarette smoke, dust, or fragrances. The most common clinical sign is coughing. A diagnosis is made through a combination of chest radiographs, heartworm testing, bloodwork, urine and fecal testing, and may also require bronchoscopy or airway lavage. As asthma cannot be cured, treatment is aimed at management of the disease using a combination of steroids and bronchodilators, usually given by inhalation to avoid or reduce negative systemic side effects. Adjunct treatments include modifying the environment to reduce exposure to the noxious stimulus, hypoallergenic diet trials, and acupuncture.

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Autoimmune Skin Disease in Cats

This handout summarizes autoimmune skin disease in cats, a condition whereby the immune system attacks the body's own tissues. The many different variations of autoimmune skin disease are described, along with clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis.

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Bladder Stones in Cats

Bladder stones are rock-like formations of minerals that develop in the urinary bladder. All stones form because of disease or inflammation in the bladder. The most common signs of bladder stones in the cat are blood in the urine and straining to urinate. Large stones may act almost like a valve, causing an "on-off" or partial obstruction at the neck of the bladder. In males, small stones become lodged in the urethra and cause an obstruction. X-rays (with or without contrast dyes) or ultrasound may be necessary for diagnosis. The fastest way to remove bladder stones is via a surgical procedure called a cystotomy. Special diets or passing a catheter may be successful for some bladder stones. Your veterinarian will advise you of the best course of action for your cat’s particular situation.

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Cardiomyopathy in Cats

Cardiomyopathy is a term used to describe diseases of the heart muscle. In cats, three classes of cardiomyopathy have been described: hypertrophic, dilated, and intermediate or restrictive cardiomyopathy. In the early stages of disease, the cat may not show any signs of disease. This is referred to as compensated heart disease. Often cats will alter their activity levels to those that they can cope with, which makes it difficult to diagnose cardiomyopathy until it is quite advanced. Diagnosis of heart disease can be suspected based on clinical signs, chest X-rays, and electrocardiography (ECG). In cases where an underlying cause of the heart disease is found, then treatment of this condition may result in improvement or reversal of the heart disease. The long-term prognosis for a cat with cardiomyopathy is extremely variable, depending on the cause of this disease.

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Senior Cat Care - Special Considerations

Several changes occur in the aging cat; they often progress slowly, so it is essential to have your senior cat examined by a veterinarian twice yearly. This is important so that if your cat develops a disease, it can be recognized and treated as early as possible, thereby maintaining her quality of life for as long as possible.

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Chin Acne in Cats

Chin acne in cats is a poorly understood disorder of follicular keratinization (the overproduction of keratin, a protein found in the outer layer of skin). If this excess keratin is trapped in the hair follicle, comedones (blackheads) form. Pustules (pimples) may form if bacteria infect the comedones. The underlying causes are not fully understood but may be associated with excess sebum production, viral infection, immunosuppression, stress, or poor grooming. Treatment options are available and often involve improved hygiene.

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Chlamydial Conjunctivitis in Cats

Chlamydial conjunctivitis in cats is an infection caused by a bacterial organism. The most common signs of chlamydia in cats involve the eyes or the upper respiratory tract (nose or throat), and only when infection is not treated does it spread to the lungs. In cats with conjunctivitis, the conjunctiva becomes swollen and red. Chlamydia is spread by close or direct contact with an infected cat, so all cats in the home can become infected. Chlamydia can be successfully treated with a course of oral and topical antibiotics.

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Chronic Upper Respiratory Tract Disease

When clinical signs of upper respiratory tract inflammation, such as sneezing or nasal and eye discharge, persist over weeks or months, or when they tend to recur at intervals of a few weeks, the condition is referred to as chronic upper respiratory tract disease. A runny or stuffed-up nose is the most common clinical sign in cats with chronic infections. There are many causes of this relatively common problem in cats. The treatment will be determined by the test results and diagnosis.

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Chronic Kidney Disease in Cats

The kidneys have many functions. They principally act to remove waste products from the blood stream, regulate the levels of certain essential minerals such potassium and sodium, conserve water, and produce urine. The kidneys have a large amount of spare capacity to perform their various functions so at least two-thirds (67% to 70%) of the kidneys must be dysfunctional before any clinical signs are seen.

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Chylothorax in Cats

Chylothorax is a life-threatening condition caused by chyle leaking out of the thoracic duct into the chest cavity, causing lung compression and the inability of the lungs to fill with air. This occurs more commonly in purebred cats. The causes, diagnostics, treatments, and prognosis are explained in this handout.

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Cholangitis/Cholangiohepatitis Syndrome in Cats

Cholangitis is a term referring to inflammation of the bile duct. Cholangiohepatitis means inflammation of the bile ducts, gall bladder, and surrounding liver tissue. Cholangitis and cholangiohepatitis usually occur together as a complex or syndrome (CCHC or CCHS) and is much more common in cats than in dogs.

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Conjunctivitis in Cats

Conjunctivitis means inflammation of the conjunctiva. If you see excessive tearing or watering from one or both eyes, abnormal discharge, or reddened conjunctival membranes, your cat may have conjunctivitis. The most common causes of conjunctivitis can be roughly divided into two categories: infectious diseases and non-infectious conditions including allergies, hereditary conditions, and tumors. Conjunctivitis may also be a secondary symptom of another eye disease. Specific tests will be performed, based on the medical history and results of an eye examination and surrounding tissues. The general approach to non-specific conjunctivitis is to use ophthalmic preparations containing a combination of broad-spectrum antibiotics to control the secondary bacterial infection and anti-inflammatory drugs to reduce the inflammation. The prognosis depends on the specific diagnosis.

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Constipation in Cats

Constipation is defined as an abnormal accumulation of feces in the colon resulting in difficult bowel movements. Constipation is a condition seen most commonly in mature, middle-aged cats and can be caused by hairballs, ingestion of foreign bodies, pelvic injuries, or obesity and/or lack of exercise. Megacolon is the most common cause of constipation in cats. In most cases, a diagnosis of constipation can be made on the basis of the cat's clinical signs and medical history. Treatment varies depending on the cause of constipation. The long-term outlook varies according to the cause of the constipation; however, most cats can be adequately managed without surgery and resume normal, healthy lives.

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Corneal Ulcers in Cats

The cornea is the clear, glistening membrane that makes up the surface of the eyeball. A penetration or erosion through a few layers of the outermost corneal epithelium is called a corneal erosion or corneal abrasion. A corneal ulcer is a deeper erosion through the entire epithelium down into the stroma.

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Coughing in Cats

A cough is an expiratory effort producing a sudden, noisy expulsion of air from the lungs. In cats, coughing is most often a sign of an inflammatory problem, affecting the lower respiratory tract, especially some form of bronchitis, often due to an infection. Heartworm infection, allergies, presence of foreign material within the airway, or irritation from inhaled liquids or gases can all be responsible for coughing and respiratory problems in cats. In order to diagnosis the cause, blood tests, laboratory cultures, endoscopic examination, and radiography may be performed. Treatment depends on the diagnosis and your cat's medical condition.

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Cystitis and Lower Urinary Tract Disease in Cats

Cystitis is a general term referring to inflammation in the urinary bladder. The term cystitis does not imply a specific underlying cause. In cats, diseases of the lower urinary tract (bladder and urethra) are often grouped under the term feline lower urinary tract disease (FLUTD). The initial diagnosis of FLUTD is based on the identification of signs of lower urinary tract inflammation.

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Diabetes Mellitus in Cats - Overview

Diabetes is an inability of the body to regulate blood sugar caused by an abnormality of the pancreas and is the second most common endocrine disease in cats. It causes increased thirst, urination, appetite, and weight loss. Cats most commonly have type 2 diabetes caused by decreased insulin production or insulin resistance and it often is associated with obesity. Diabetes is diagnosed by measuring increased levels of glucose in the urine and blood. Diabetes treatment includes insulin injections and dietary manipulation. Changes in blood sugar must be monitored regularly. If cats receive too much insulin, they can become hypoglycemic resulting in weakness, coma or even death.

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Diaphragmatic Hernia in Cats

The diaphragm is the muscular partition that separates the abdomen and the chest. Tearing or disruption of this thin muscle is called a diaphragmatic hernia or diaphragmatic rupture. The most common cause of diaphragmatic hernia is blunt force trauma. Clinical signs are dependent on the severity of herniation. There is often respiratory distress, an abnormal heart rhythm, muffled heart and lung sounds, and other signs of systemic shock. The abdomen may feel empty when palpated. Once the patient is stable, the hernia must be corrected surgically.

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Diarrhea Questionnaire and Checklist for Cats

Diarrhea is a sign of disease, rather than a specific diagnosis. This handout provides some important questions that allows your veterinary health team to formulate an adequate history in a cat presenting with diarrhea.

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Diarrhea in Cats

Diarrhea is unformed or loose bowel movements, usually with increased amount and frequency. It is a result of faster movement of fecal material through the intestine combined with decreased absorption of water, nutrients, and electrolytes. Diarrhea is not a disease, but rather is a sign of many different diseases. Causes of diarrhea may be determined through a combination of history, physical examination, and fecal testing. Diarrhea is often treated symptomatically with dewormers, probiotics, metronidazole or tylosin, and a special gastrointestinal diet. Chronic diarrhea, that has been present longer than two to three weeks, may prove more difficult to diagnose and treat effectively.

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Ear Infections in Cats (Otitis Externa)

Infections of the external ear canal or outer ear caused by bacteria and yeast are common in dogs but not as common in cats. The most common cause of feline otitis externa is ear mite infestation. Ear infections cause pain and discomfort and the ear canals are sensitive.

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Ear Mites in Cats and Dogs

The ear mite is a surface mite that lives on cats, dogs, rabbits, and ferrets. It is usually found in the ear canal but it can also live on the skin surface. Mites are barely visible to the naked eye. Clinical signs of infestation vary in severity and may include ear irritation, leading to scratching at the ears or head shaking, dark waxy or crusty discharge from the ear, areas of hair loss resulting from self-trauma, a crusted rash around or in the ear, and an aural hematoma. Your veterinarian will advise you about which insecticidal products are suitable. Your veterinarian may want to re-examine your pet to ensure that the mites have been eliminated after the initial treatment has been performed.

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Eye Discharge (Epiphora) in Cats

Epiphora or excessive tearing from the eyes can be a sign of tear duct blockage or more serious eye problems. Clinical signs include dampness beneath the eyes, reddish-brown staining of the fur beneath the eyes, odor, skin irritation, and skin infection. The facial anatomy of brachycephalic breeds may play a role in this condition. Treatment may include flushing of the lacrimal duct, or surgery to open the lacrimal puncta. The prognosis is variable and dependent on whether the underlying cause can be found and treated.

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Nose Bleeds (Epistaxis) in Cats

Epistasis is the condition of bleeding from the nostril. First aid for epistaxis includes staying calm and applying an icepack over the nose of the cat. Your veterinarian will try to diagnose the cause of the bleeding through a combination of a detailed history, blood and urine tests including clotting tests, blood pressure, X-rays, and sample collection for cultures. There are many potential causes of epistaxis with the most common being trauma and infection. Treatment is aimed at the underlying condition. Prognosis depends on the cause of the epistaxis.

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Hepatic Lipidosis in Cats (Fatty Liver Syndrome in Cats)

Hepatic lipidosis, also known as fatty liver syndrome, is unique to cats and is one of the most common liver diseases seen in cats. Usually a cat with hepatic lipidosis has recently gone through a period of anorexia. When fat is broken down rapidly to supply energy and nutrients to the anorectic cat, it can overwhelm the ability of the liver to process and the fat becomes stored in and around the liver cells, further compromising liver function. Diagnosis of hepatic lipidosis is made from blood tests that demonstrate poor liver function and from a liver biopsy or aspirate. This disease is treatable with aggressive nutritional support until a normal appetite returns.

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Eosinophilic Granuloma Complex in Cats

Eosinophilic granuloma complex is a term used to describe three forms of skin lesions in cats including eosinophilic plaque, eosinophilic granuloma, and indolent ulcers. These lesions have a characteristic microscopic appearance due to the presence of eosinophils, which are a form of inflammatory white blood cell often associated with allergies. The most common site for these lesions is on the lips, hind legs, and stomachs. If an underlying cause is identified, specific treatment will be directed at removing this cause. Corticosteroids or cyclosporine drugs are often used to control the symptoms. Life-long intermittent treatment may be required as recurrence is common.

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Feline Idiopathic Cystitis

Feline idiopathic cystitis includes a set of clinical signs associated with abnormal urination and is an exclusionary diagnosis. Cats will often suffer waxing and waning of clinical signs such as straining to urinate, blood in urine, and inappropriate urination. Many conditions must be ruled out before a diagnosis of FIC can be made. Treatment involves addressing the stressors that triggered the clinical signs in the first place and improving the cat's environment to reduce or eliminate potential stressors. Pain medications are used to relieve your cat’s discomfort, as well as diet changes to improve clinical signs and reduce the frequency of occurrence.

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Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV)

This handout provides information on Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV) in cats. Included is information on how the disease is transmitted, the clinical signs, the recommendations for isolation of the infected cats, and potential treatment guidelines should your cat be infected with this virus.

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Miliary Dermatitis in Cats

Feline miliary dermatitis is a general term used to describe a skin condition in cats that most commonly results from an allergic reaction. Cats will have a very itchy rash and may lick, bite, and scratch at the affected skin. The most commonly affected areas include the lower spine, around the base of the tail, face, ears, neck, flanks, and belly. Diagnosis is based primarily on medical history and clinical signs. If fleas are not suspected or if the condition does not respond to symptomatic flea treatment, skin scrapings, biopsies, allergy tests, a hypoallergenic food trial, or a referral to a veterinary dermatologist may be recommended. Treatment involves removing the offending irritant or allergen and reducing the cat's clinical signs.

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Fever of Unknown Origin in Cats

To be classified as a fever of unknown origin (FUO), the body temperature must be above 103.5°F (39.7°C) for longer than a few days in duration, with no obvious underlying cause based on history and physical examination. A fever is beneficial to the body, but if a fever remains above 106°F (41.1°C) for more than a few days several consequences occur within the body and can be life threatening. If your pet has a fever, your veterinarian will perform a thorough physical examination, perform diagnostic blood tests, urine culture, and possibly other diagnostic tests including imaging, cytology, blood cultures, and fecal cultures. The diagnostic work-up for FUO may be quite involved. Antibiotics are often prescribed to treat any underlying bacterial infection or to prevent bacterial infections from occurring as a secondary problem. Cats that have persistent fever or a fever that waxes and wanes must undergo a thorough work-up so that the cause of fever can be discovered and treated before irreversible damage occurs.

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Flea Allergy Dermatitis in Cats

An allergy occurs when the cat's immune system overreacts or is hypersensitive to foreign substances called allergens. When a flea bites a cat to consume a blood meal, some of its saliva is injected into the skin. In an allergic cat, just one bite can result in intense itching that can last for days. Many flea-allergic cats chew or lick the hair off their legs. Since the flea saliva causes the reaction, the most important treatment for flea allergy is to prevent fleabites by treating the cat and environment for fleas. Corticosteroids can be used to block the allergic reaction and give immediate relief to a cat suffering from the intense itching of FAD.

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Frostbite in Cats

Frostbite is the damage that is caused to the skin and other tissues due to extreme cold. The paws, ears and tail are the most common tissues to be affected. Diagnosis is usually based on the cat's medical history and physical examination. If you suspect your cat has frostbite, you should seek medical attention immediately. Mild cases of frostbite usually resolve with little permanent damage while more severe frostbite may result in permanent disfiguration or alteration of the affected tissues. In severe cases, some cats require surgical removal of the necrotic tissue or amputation.

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Gastritis in Cats

Gastritis is defined as inflammation of the lining of the stomach. The most common clinical signs associated with gastritis are sudden vomiting and decreased appetite (anorexia). Causes of acute gastritis include the ingestion of spoiled or raw food, non-food items such as garbage, foreign objects, plants, toxins, eating inappropriate foodstuffs such as table scraps or leftovers, or being fed large quantities of food. Treatment is based on the specific cause. Most acute cases resolve without medical intervention.

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Gastroenteritis in Cats

Gastroenteritis refers to inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, meaning the stomach and the intestines. The principal treatment of gastroenteritis consists of rehydration and the restoration of blood electrolyte balance (sodium, potassium, and/or chloride). Most cases of acute gastroenteritis improve rapidly after rehydration. Early recognition and treatment are the cornerstones to returning your cat to his or her normal healthy state as quickly as possible.

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Endoscopy - Gastrointestinal in Cats

Your cat has been scheduled for an endoscopic examination. The purpose of this procedure is to help your veterinarian make a diagnosis of the disease that has been causing your pet's clinical signs of vomiting, diarrhea, weight loss, abdominal pain or loss of appetite.

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Glomerulonephritis in Cats

Glomerulonephritis is an inflammatory condition of one part of the kidneys (glomeruli) that results in excessive urinary protein loss and kidney damage and can cause many life-threatening conditions, including thromboembolic disease. There are many causes though most of the time, no specific cause is identified. Diagnosis involves blood work, repeated urine tests, imaging, blood pressure, and kidney biopsy. Treatments and prognosis are also described in this handout.

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Heart Disease in Cats

Though less common than in dogs, some heart conditions in cats are serious and need to be treated medically. The most common type of heart disease in cats is adult onset hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. The two most common types of congenital heart disease are malformations of a valve or a septal defect in the wall that divides the right and left sides of the heart. Diagnosis involves X-rays, ECG, and echocardiography. The specific treatment will depend on the cause of the heart disease and depending on the underlying cause cats can have a normal life.

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Cysts

Cysts are hollow spaces within tissues that contain either a liquid or a solidified material. Some breeds have a tendency to develop certain types of cysts. Accurate diagnosis relies upon microscopic examination of a piece of tissue. The most common treatment for cysts is surgical removal. It is important to prevent your pet from rubbing, scratching, or otherwise bothering the cysts or the surgical site.

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Heartworm Disease in Cats

Heartworms (Dirofilaria immitis) are a blood-borne parasite that reside in the heart or adjacent large blood vessels of infected animals. Recent studies of cats with heart and respiratory diseases have found an incidence of heartworms that is far greater than previously thought. Veterinarians now strongly recommend that all cats receive year-round monthly heartworm preventives. There are excellent heartworm preventives now available for cats, making prevention of heartworm disease safe and easy.

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Hematoma of the Ear in Cats

Ear hematomas are a collection of blood, either fresh or clotted, within the pinna. Excessive or violent shaking causes one or more blood vessels to break, resulting in bleeding into the space between the ear cartilage and skin on the inner surface of the ear. There is often an underlying cause which must be treated but additionally, surgery or drainage should be done to help relieve discomfort. Failure to treat will lead to a misshapen ear caused by damage from inflammation.

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Hip Dislocation and Post-Operative Care in Cats

The most common cause of hip dislocation is blunt force trauma such as a fall or an automobile injury. Most cats with a hip dislocation will have severe hind limb lameness and pain, and may not be able to put any weight on the affected limb. A diagnostic X-ray will show the direction of dislocation, and whether a fracture of any part of the hip joint has occurred. In many cases, it is possible to replace the femoral head in the acetabulum by manipulation under general anesthesia. If the femoral head has been successfully replaced and the correct post-operative treatment has been adhered to, it is unlikely that the hip will redislocate.

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Hypertension or High Blood Pressure in Cats

Hypertension, or high blood pressure, in cats can be a debilitating condition if not treated promptly. Hypertension may be caused by kidney disease, hyperthyroidism, or hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Your veterinarian will recommend the best treatment options for your cat based on her specific needs. Prognosis is variable depending on how well these other conditions are controlled.

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Hyperthyroidism in Cats

Hyperthyroidism is a common condition in older cats that is caused by excess release of thyroid hormone resulting in an increased metabolic state. Hyperthyroidism can cause weight loss despite a good appetite, increased water consumption and urination, vomiting, diarrhea, cardiomyopathy, and hypertension. Diagnosis is made by testing blood thyroid hormone levels. Several successful treatment options exist including medication, thyroidectomy, radioactive iodine and prescription diet. Prognosis with treatment is generally good.

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Hypocalcemia (Low Calcium Levels) in Cats

Calcium is a mineral that is found in small quantities throughout the body and plays an important role in muscle contraction, transmission of nerve impulses, blood clotting, and bone growth. Hypocalcemia means that the level of calcium in the bloodstream is low. Early signs of hypocalcemia include restlessness, stiffness, weakness, irritability, muscle tremors and hypersensitivity (exaggerated responsiveness) to touch and sound. Calcium and phosphorus levels are closely inter-related and when phosphorus levels increase as a result of chronic kidney disease, calcium levels decrease. With hypocalcemia due to chronic renal failure, treatment is directed at lowering the serum phosphate concentrations by dietary restriction of phosphorus and administration of intestinal phosphate binders. Hypocalcemia may also occur with lactation in a nursing mother cat, low blood protein levels, pancreatitis, certain drugs and toxins, and as a post-operative complication following surgical treatment for hyperthyroidism. If the hypocalcemia is severe, immediate correction of the decreased levels will require calcium injections.

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Hypokalemia (Low Potassium Levels) in Cats

Hypokalemia is a term that refers to a low blood concentration of potassium. Potassium is an important electrolyte within the body and is vital for the normal function of muscles and nerves. Mild to moderate hypokalemia often does not cause clinical sigs, but severe hypokalemia can result in generalized muscle weakness, lack of appetite, and some cats may become constipated. The underlying cause of hypokalemia is often chronic kidney failure. Hypokalemia and its associated clinical signs may be quickly corrected by potassium supplementation. Depending on the cause, it may be necessary to continue supplementing potassium permanently.

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Icterus (Jaundice) in Cats

Icterus is also known as jaundice is an excessive accumulation of a yellow pigment in the blood and tissues, most easily seen in the gingivae and sclerae. Icterus can be caused by hemolysis, liver disease, or obstruction of the bile duct. Your veterinarian will perform screening tests to determine the root cause of icterus. Based on the preliminary tests, your veterinarian may recommend fine needle aspiration, needle biopsy, or a surgical biopsy. Icterus will resolve once the underlying disease is identified and treated. The prognosis depends on the underlying cause.

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Cat Behavior Problems - House Soiling

House soiling in cats, also called feline inappropriate elimination, is the most common behavioral complaint of cat owners. Problem behaviors can be urine and/or stool deposited outside of the litter box, or marking behaviors.

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Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Cats

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a syndrome affecting the stomach and/or intestines that can cause vomiting, diarrhea, or weight loss. It is considered a chronic condition that may have a good prognosis, though a diagnosis is not always easy. Treatment may involve a diet change, medications, or both and will need to be closely followed to prevent relapses.

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Asthma - Treatment Instructions for Cats

If your cat has been diagnosed with feline asthma, it is important that you follow the treatment instructions that have been determined specifically for your cat. This handout is to be filled in by your veterinary team.

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Joint Subluxations in Cats

A joint luxation is a dislocation or complete separation between the bones that normally articulate to form a joint. Subluxation is the term referring to a partial separation of the joint. The most commonly subluxated joint in cats is the hip, although any joint can be affected. Your veterinarian may be suspicious of a joint subluxation based on a history of trauma and physical examination findings such as pain and limping. A radiograph is necessary to definitively diagnose a joint subluxation. In many cases, the joint can be reduced or replaced to its original orientation by a procedure called a closed reduction with prognosis being good if treated immediately.

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Lenticular Sclerosis in Cats

Lenticular sclerosis is the term for a bluish transparent haze that develops in the lens of the eye in middle-aged to senior cats. Vision does not appear to be significantly affected in these cats. While the exact mechanism is poorly understood, it appears that the lens gradually becomes harder with age. There is no specific treatment for lenticular sclerosis, nor is treatment necessary.

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Liver Diseases in Cats

The liver is an important organ necessary for controlling many different body functions. Signs of liver disease include increased drinking and urination, abdominal swelling, jaundice, digestive upset, and weight loss. Because of the varied actions of the liver there are several blood and urinary tests that can reveal liver disease. Imaging can be used to determine if there is a change in liver size or irregularity in liver tissue. Ultimately, a liver biopsy is often needed to definitively diagnose liver disease. A biopsy may be obtained by fine needle aspiration through the body wall or a surgical biopsy may be necessary. Anesthesia in a cat with liver disease will carry increased risk but often is relatively low. Treatment of liver disease depends on the diagnosis, but sometimes specific diets are recommended to help manage or slow the disease.

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Megacolon in Cats

If the nerves to the colon do not function normally, the muscles of the colonic wall will not contract properly. The muscles then become stretched and the colon enlarges in diameter. Rather than being pushed into the rectum in a normal manner, fecal material accumulates in the distended colon, resulting in severe constipation called obstipation. This massive enlargement of the colon and the resulting constipation is called megacolon. Megacolon is often treatable using a medical approach but some cases require surgical intervention called subtotal colectomy.

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Nasopharyngeal Polyps in Cats

Nasopharyngeal polyps are benign idiopathic masses originating from the middle ear that extend either down the eustachian tube or into the external ear. They can cause stertor, nasal discharge, otitis, otic discharge and head tilt. Diagnosis may involve visualization through otoscopic exam or behind the soft palate, but usually needs radiographic evidence or more advanced imaging such as CT or MRI. Treatment involves debulking the mass through traction which has a high rate of recurrence, or more advanced surgery into the bulla to remove the source of the polyp.

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Pancreatitis in Cats

The pancreas is a vital organ on the right side of the abdomen adjacent to the stomach. It produces enzymes to assist in food digestion and hormones such as insulin, which regulates blood sugar or glucose metabolism. When the pancreas becomes inflamed, the condition is called pancreatitis. Common clinical signs include decreased appetite, nausea, vomiting, lethargy, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. If the attack is severe, acute shock or death may occur. Successful pancreatitis management will depend on early diagnosis and prompt medical therapy.

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Pleural Effusion in Cats

Pleural effusion refers to the abnormal accumulation of fluid within the chest cavity. The fluid is not found within the lungs, but instead within the pleural sac, essentially meaning the lungs are floating in a chest that is full of fluid. Several conditions can cause pleural effusion, including chylothorax, heart failure, and tumors in the lungs or chest wall. Immediate treatment often requires oxygen support and the removal of the excess fluid by thoracocentesis, which can also then be tested to diagnose the cause of the pleural effusion. Treatment and prognosis vary depending on the underlying cause of the pleural effusion.

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Polycystic Kidney Disease in Cats

Polycystic kidney disease is an inherited condition in cats that causes multiple cysts to form in the kidneys. These cysts are present from birth. Initially they are very small but they grow larger over time and may eventually disrupt kidney function resulting in kidney failure.

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Post-Vaccination Sarcoma in Cats

A sarcoma is a term for any cancer of mesenchymal tissues. Mesenchymal tissues include connective tissues such as skin and muscles, bone, cartilage, peritoneum, and blood vessels. Post-vaccination sarcomas usually involve the fibrous connective tissue under the skin and are often fibrosarcomas. It is important to realize that sarcomas have been associated with injections of other medications in cats, so the condition is more correctly called injection-site sarcoma. A biopsy of the lump and histopathology of the abnormal tissue will confirm that it is a sarcoma as opposed to inflammation or infection.

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Pyometra in Cats

Pyometra is defined as an infection in the uterus. Pyometra is considered a serious and life threatening condition that must be treated quickly and aggressively. Pyometra may occur in any sexually intact young to middle-aged cat; however, it is most common in older cats. Typically, the cat has been in heat within the previous 4 weeks.

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Pyothorax in Cats

Pyothorax is the presence of inflammatory fluid or pus within the chest cavity, which is the area between the lungs and the inner walls of the ribs. Signs of pyothorax include rapid, shallow, open-mouthed breathing that may be painful, depression, lethargy, decreased appetite. Clinical examination by a veterinarian, particularly listening to the chest with a stethoscope, may indicate fluid in the chest.

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Ringworm in Cats

Ringworm infections in cats are caused by a fungus, not a worm. They can be easily recognized, though definitive testing by fungal culture is recommended. Ringworm is highly contagious and can be spread between animals and from animals to people. The clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, and risks are explained in this handout.

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Seborrhea in Cats

Seborrhea or seborrheic dermatitis is a skin disorder in which the sebaceous glands produce an excessive amount of sebum causing scaly, flaky, itchy, and red skin. It typically affects the back, face and flanks. It may be worse in areas with skin folds such as the feet, neck, lips, armpits, thighs, and underside. Seborrhea can be a primary or secondary disease and is diagnosed by multiple tests to determine the underlying cause. Treatment is based on the cause and may include topical therapies, oral anti-inflammatories and antibiotics.

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Seizures and Epilepsy in Cats

A seizure is a sudden surge in the electrical activity of the brain causing signs such as twitching, shaking, tremors, convulsions, and/or spasms. Epilepsy is used to describe repeated episodes of seizures. With epilepsy, the seizures can be single or may occur in clusters, and they can be infrequent and unpredictable or may occur at regular intervals. Since many different diseases can lead to seizures, it is important to perform diagnostic tests to investigate the underlying cause of the seizures. Treatment of seizures in the cat depends on the nature of the underlying disease.

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Solar Dermatitis in Cats

Solar dermatitis is a skin disease caused by exposure to the sun. It occurs mainly in cats with white or pale patches of skin that are non-pigmented areas. The most commonly affected areas in the cat are the ears, but the nose and the eyelids are sometimes involved. Your veterinarian will recommend taking a tissue biopsy from the affected area if there is any concern that the condition may be progressing to squamous cell carcinoma.

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Thrombocytopenia in Cats

Thrombocytopenia is a condition of low blood platelets, resulting in abnormal hemorrhage and possible anemia. There are many causes, including severe or prolonged blood loss, increased internal destruction of platelets, or impaired bone marrow production. Several diseases and medications are also associated with thrombocytopenia. Treatment may require the replacement of platelets along with treatment of the specific underlying cause.

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Hypocalcemia (Low Calcium Levels) in Dogs

The term hypocalcemia is used when the level of calcium in the blood is lower than normal. Calcium levels are controlled by a pair of parathyroid glands. Low calcium levels are associated with a number of serious disorders including antifreeze poisoning, inflammation of the pancreas, kidney failure, and parathyroid gland failure. In nursing female dogs, heavy milk production can lead to hypocalcemia and may result in seizures. Pets with hypocalcemia may show signs of muscle twitching, loss of appetite, weakness, and listlessness. Your veterinarian will perform diagnostic tests which may include testing total calcium, ionized calcium, albumin, and parathyroid hormone levels. Primary hypoparathyroidism can be managed with a medication plus nutritional supplements containing vitamin D and calcium.

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Pancreatitis in Cats - Pancreas-Specific Lipase

Pancreas-specific lipase is a form of lipase produced only in the pancreas and is highly specific to the pancreas. Blood values increase only when there is pancreatic inflammation. There is now a version of the fPLI test that can be used in-clinic (SNAP fPL© from IDEXX). Ideally, the sample should also be sent to the laboratory to get an actual value of fPLI to help with treatment and monitoring.

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Pancreatitis in Dogs - Pancreas-Specific Lipase

Pancreas-specific lipase is a form of lipase produced only in the pancreas and is highly specific to the pancreas. Blood values increase only when there is pancreatic inflammation. A version of the cPLI test can now be used in-clinic (SNAP fPL© from IDEXX). Ideally, the sample should also be sent to the laboratory to get an actual value of cPLI to help with treatment and monitoring.

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Vitamin A Poisoning in Cats

Too much vitamin A or hypervitaminosis A can lead to serious toxicity. While somewhat uncommon in North America, vitamin A toxicity is sometimes diagnosed in cats that are fed primarily table scraps. There seems to be considerable variability in how susceptible individual cats are to this problem. It takes a long time for the clinical signs associated with vitamin A toxicity to develop; symptoms do not usually appear until the dog is at least middle-aged.

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Vomiting in Cats

Vomiting may be caused by disorders of the stomach, but is a clinical sign that can occur with many diseases and problems. Different types of vomiting are reviewed. Any required tests are determined based on physical examination of your cat and questions regarding how your cat has been acting and feeling at home.

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Mast Cell Tumors in Cats

Mast cells are a type of white blood cell that plays a large role in allergic response through degranulation. Mast cell tumors (MCT) can occur in the skin, spleen, or gastrointestinal tract of cats. Their cause is unknown; however, many affected cats show a genetic mutation in the KIT protein involved in replication and cell division. Cutaneous MCTs most often appear as hard pale/white plaques or nodules, often around the head and they may be itchy. Splenic MCTs cause decreased appetite, weight loss, and vomiting. Intestinal MCTs may cause GI upset and bloody stools, and a mass may be palpable. Diagnosis is typically achieved via fine needle aspirate although histopathology can be used. Treatment usually requires surgical removal of the masses or the spleen. Sometimes, chemotherapy or radiation is needed.

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Mast Cell Tumors in Dogs

Mast cell tumors are most common in the skin of dogs and have a nodular, alopecic, sometimes inflamed appearance. These can be itchy and can fluctuate in size. They are generally easily diagnosed by fine needle aspirate but histopathology is needed to grade the tumor to determine the prognosis and best management. Tumors can range from lower-grade, with minimal metastasis and spread, to higher-grade, with a high risk of metastasis and local invasion. Treatment usually involves surgical removal with wide margins and, depending on complications, may require supportive treatment including chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and therapy to target the mutation that instigated the tumor.

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Addison's Disease in Dogs

Addison’s disease is caused by the decreased release of the hormones cortisol and aldosterone from the adrenal cortex. Most commonly caused by immune-mediated destruction, Addison’s disease can also be caused by trauma, infection, neoplasia or hyperadrenocorticism treatment. Clinical signs are non-specific and often come and go. The most definitive diagnostic test for Addison’s disease is the ACTH stimulation test.

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Flea Allergy Dermatitis in Dogs

Flea allergy dermatitis (FAD) is a leading cause of allergic reactions in dogs. It is the antigens or proteins in the flea saliva that cause an intensely itchy response to sensitive dogs. Itching and hair loss in the region from the middle of the back to the tail base and down the rear legs (the flea triangle) is often associated with FAD. Strict flea control is essential in the prevention and treatment of FAD. Occasionally corticosteroids are used to reduce the itching in patients with severe signs of FAD.

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Food Allergies in Dogs

Food allergy is one of the five most common allergies or hypersensitivities known to affect dogs. In a pet with an allergy, the immune system overreacts and produces antibodies to substances that it would normally tolerate. In the dog, the signs of food allergy are usually itchy skin or digestive disturbances such as vomiting or diarrhea. The best and most accurate method of diagnosing food allergy is to feed a hypoallergenic diet for eight to twelve weeks as a food trial called an elimination trial.

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Atopic Dermatitis (Atopy) in Dogs

This handout explains atopic dermatitis (atopy) in dogs, a form of allergic skin disease brought on by an abnormal response to allergens in the environment. The clinical signs, diagnosis, and treatment are outlined.

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Anal Sac Disease in Dogs

Anal sac disease is a common problem in dogs that can be very uncomfortable or painful. Signs to watch for, diagnosis, and treatments, including identifying and managing underlying causes are outlined in this handout.

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Anaphylaxis in Dogs

Anaphylaxis is an acute severe allergic reaction caused by an overreaction of the body’s immune system to an allergen such as a food protein, medication, vaccine antigen or other chemical. The most common signs include itching, cutaneous edema, hives, excessive drool, vomiting, diarrhea or respiratory distress. Diagnosis is made based on history and physical exam.

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Anemia in Dogs

Anemia has a wide variety of causes and appropriate treatments based on the specific cause. Signs of anemia include the loss of the normal pink color of the gums, loss of energy or stamina, weight loss, labored breathing, loss of appetite, a faster than normal heart rate, or signs of blood loss. Several tests are performed to diagnose anemia and additional testing may be required to determine the specific cause. Toxins, infectious diseases, or cancer are some possible causes. Prognosis is variable depending on the underlying cause and how early anemia is diagnosed.

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Arthritis in Dogs

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a complex condition involving inflammation and degeneration of one or more joints.

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Bladder Stones in Dogs

Bladder stones are rock-like formations of minerals that develop in the urinary bladder. The most common signs that a dog has bladder stones are hematuria and dysuria. Bladder stones can develop within a few weeks or they may take months to form. Most bladder stones are visible on radiographs or an ultrasonic bladder examination. There are three main treatment options for bladder stones: 1) surgical removal; 2) non-surgical removal by urohydropropulsion, or 3) dietary dissolution. Prevention is possible in some cases, depending on the chemical composition of the stones.

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Von Willebrand's Disease Testing

Von Willebrand's disease causes an inability for blood to clot resulting in excessive bleeding. If this disease is suspected, initial screening tests include a complete blood count (CBC), buccal mucosal bleeding time, and a coagulation profile. More advanced diagnostics include assays that assess the quantity and functionality of vWF. DNA testing is available and most commonly used to evaluate animals used in breeding programs.

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Hawthorn

Hawthorn is given by mouth and is used over the counter and off label to treat heart conditions, digestive issues, and anxiety. Give as directed by your veterinarian. Side effects are uncommon but may include dizziness or stomach upset. Do not use in pets that are allergic to it or are pregnant or nursing. If a negative reaction occurs, please call your veterinary office.

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Methylsulfonylmethane (MSM)

Methylsulfonylmethane is given by mouth and is used over the counter and off label to treat inflammatory conditions such as arthritis. Give as directed by your veterinarian. Side effects are uncommon but may include stomach upset, restlessness, or tiredness. Do not use in pets that are allergic to it or that are pregnant or nursing. If a negative reaction occurs, please call your veterinary office.

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Panniculitis

Panniculitis is a localized inflammation of the tissues under the skin, causing a firm swelling (nodule) that may ulcerate and drain fluid. It is a common problem in cats and is less common in dogs. There are several causes of panniculitis, but in younger animals with a single lump, the cause is often blunt trauma and, in cats, it is often caused by bite wounds from fighting. An accurate diagnosis relies on the microscopic examination of tissue and the most common treatment is the surgical removal of the lump(s).

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Bone Diseases of Growing Dogs

This handout summarizes the most common forms of lameness in growing dogs. Included are osteochondritis dissecans (OCD), panosteitis, hypertrophic osteodystrophy (HOD), elbow dysplasia, ununited anconeal process (UAP), fragmented coronoid process (FCP), patellar luxation, and hip dysplasia. Clinical signs for each of these conditions, along with treatment options, is discussed.

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Campylobacter Infection in Dogs

Campylobacteriosis is a bacterial intestinal infection usually acquired by exposure to raw meat, poultry or infected water but can be spread between pets and humans. Signs of infection are watery or mucoid diarrhea with straining, possible cramping, lethargy, and fever. Most infections are self-limiting and do not require treatment. As many asymptomatic dogs carry these bacteria, diagnosis can be difficult and includes fecal culture and DNA(PCR) testing. Treatment, if required, is based on fecal culture sensitivity results as the more common infective species are resistant to many antibiotics. Prevention includes good personal hygiene and keeping your pet’s environment clean.

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Cataracts in Dogs

Inside the eye is a lens that focuses light on the back of the eye, or retina. Vision occurs at the retina. The structure of the eye is similar to a camera, which has a lens to focus light on the film. A cloudy or opaque lens is called a cataract.

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Cervical Stenosis (Wobbler Syndrome) in Dogs

Cervical stenosis is caused by compression of the spinal cord, usually at the base of the neck. Although the spinal cord compression occurs in the neck, the hind legs are often affected first. In severe cases, the dog may suddenly develop total paralysis of all four limbs. The condition is most prevalent in Great Danes and Doberman Pinschers. It is diagnosed by myelography, CT scans, or MRI. Anti-inflammatory drugs and analgesics may relieve the initial discomfort, but the greatest chance of success lies with surgery. Most pets enjoy a relatively normal lifestyle following surgery.

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Cherry Eye in Dogs

"Cherry eye" is a common term for prolapse of the third eyelid gland. Many mammals, including dogs, have an "extra" or third eyelid located inside the lower eyelid. This serves as an additional protective layer for the eye, especially during hunting or fighting.

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Colitis in Dogs

Colitis simply refers to inflammation of the large intestine or colon. Signs include frequent, small volumes of semi-formed to liquid feces, straining, and small amounts of bright red blood. The causes of colitis include stress, infections, and parasites, trauma, allergic colitis, and primary inflammatory bowel disease. The diagnosis of colitis is based on your pet's clinical signs and history, microscopic evaluation of the feces, rectal examination, cytology, and blood tests. The specific cause of colitis will dictate the appropriate treatment. For most dogs diagnosed with colitis, the prognosis is excellent for a speedy recovery.

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Conjunctivitis in Dogs

The conjunctiva is the lining tissue that covers the globe of the eye and lines the eyelids and the third eyelid. Conjunctivitis refers to inflammation of this tissue. The most common clinical signs of conjunctivitis include discharge from the eyes, squinting or excessive blinking, and redness or swelling around the eyes. Conjunctivitis often involves both eyes, but only one eye may be affected in certain conditions. The most common causes of conjunctivitis include bacterial and viral infections, allergies, hereditary conditions, and tumors. The main goal of diagnosis is to determine if the conjunctivitis is a primary or secondary problem, if there is additional disease or damage to the eye, if the condition is allergic, or if it involves the sclera. In order to differentiate many of these conditions, a complete and detailed ophthalmic examination must be performed. Treatment is directed at the specific cause and may include both topical and oral medications. Most dogs have an excellent prognosis in most cases of conjunctivitis.

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Corneal Ulcers in Dogs

The cornea is the transparent, shiny membrane that makes up the front of the eyeball. With a corneal ulcer, fluid is absorbed from the tears into the stroma, giving a cloudy appearance to the eye. The most common cause of a corneal ulcer is trauma. Less common causes of corneal ulcers include bacterial infections, viral infections, and other diseases.

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Canine Coronavirus Disease

Canine coronavirus (CCoV) is not the same virus as SARS-CoV-2 that causes COVID-19. Canine coronavirus disease, known as CCoV, is a highly infectious intestinal infection in dogs, especially puppies. CCoV does not affect people, and causes gastrointestinal problems as opposed to respiratory disease. Crowding and unsanitary conditions lead to coronavirus transmission. Dogs may be carriers of the disease for up to six months (180 days) after infection. The most typical sign associated with canine coronavirus is diarrhea, typically sudden in onset, which may be accompanied by lethargy and decreased appetite. There is no specific treatment for coronavirus. Canine coronavirus vaccines are available. This vaccine will only work for the CCoV type of coronavirus.

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Retained Testicle (Cryptorchidism) in Dogs

Cryptorchidism (retained testicles) is a fairly uncommon disease that can be passed on to future litters. Clinical signs are uncommon unless complications develop. Testicular cancer and spermatic cord torsion are two complications that can occur with cryptorchidism. Neutering easily corrects the problem.

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Cushing's Disease in Dogs

Cushing's disease is a condition in which the adrenal glands overproduce certain hormones. There are three types of Cushing’s disease, each of which has a different cause. The most common cause of Cushing's disease is a pituitary gland tumor. Cushing's disease may be the result of a benign or malignant tumor of the adrenal gland itself or may be caused from the excessive administration of an oral or injectable steroid. The most common clinical signs are increased appetite, increased water consumption, and increased urination. Treatments depend on which type of the disease is present. Your veterinarian will outline a treatment plan for your pet’s specific condition. Lifelong treatment may be necessary. The prognosis depends on the cause.

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Calcinosis Circumscripta and Cutis

Calcium deposits in the skin have a variety of causes. Calcinosis circumscripta is deposition of calcium at bony prominences or, in the footpads and mouth. It is usually a disease of large dog breeds and occurs before two years of age. Calcinosis cutis is induced by local skin damage in susceptible animals and takes two forms: dystrophic or metastatic. The appearance of the skin lesions may lead your veterinarian to suspect calcium deposits as the problem, particularly when the age, breed, and clinical history are considered. Blood tests can help indicate some underlying conditions, but confirmation by skin biopsy may be necessary. While small deposits may be resorbed without treatment over time, surgery is the best choice for larger deposits.

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Papilloma of the Skin

Papillomas are benign, sometimes multiple, tumors caused by viruses. They are commonly known as warts. The virus is transmitted through direct contact from an infected pet or the pet’s environment (e.g., toys, food bowls, or bedding) and gain access to the body when the skin becomes softened by moisture, through cuts and abrasions, or with the assistance of insects. Pets with immature immune systems such as young dogs and puppies, and those that are immune compromised, are more prone to developing papilloma tumors. The tumors often disappear within 1-2 months because the animal slowly develops an immunity to them. However, sometimes they persist, and surgical removal is necessary.

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Thrombocytopenia in Dogs

Thrombocytopenia is a condition of low blood platelets, resulting in abnormal hemorrhage and possible anemia. There are many causes, including severe or prolonged blood loss, increased internal destruction of platelets, or impaired bone marrow production. Several diseases and medications are also associated with thrombocytopenia. Treatment may require the replacement of platelets along with treatment of the specific underlying cause.

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Tonsillitis in Dogs

The tonsils are similar to lymph nodes, and the role of both of these structures is to fight infection. There is a pair of tonsils located in small pouches at the back of the throat that enlarge during infection or inflammation. Tonsillitis usually occurs as a result of another disease that affects the mouth or throat. If an underlying source of the infection can be found, it must be treated.

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Tracheal Collapse in Dogs

Tracheal collapse is a result of the weakening of the cartilage rings of the trachea resulting in collapse of the windpipe on inhalation. It is one cause of a chronic cough that can have a characteristic goose honk sound and is common in several small dog breeds. It is exacerbated by tracheal pressure, obesity, excitement, and airborne irritants. Diagnosis may be achieved from a combination of patient history, testing tracheal sensitivity, X-rays, and bronchoscopy. Management involves various medical therapies including corticosteroids, cough suppressants, bronchodilators, and sedatives, as well as weight loss, avoidance of airborne irritants, and avoiding tracheal compression by using a harness instead of a collar. Sometimes surgery is required. Prognosis is varied and dependent on response to medical management.

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Ununited Anconeal Process (UAP) in Dogs

The anconeal process is a small projection of bone on the ulna, the longer of the two bones of the forearm. If the anconeal process does not fuse to the rest of the ulna correctly during growth, it causes a condition called ununited anconeal process (UAP). This problem appears to be hereditary mostly in large breeds. When this part of the ulna does not fuse, the elbow joint becomes unstable, causing lameness and pain. Treatment requires surgery. Some form of rehabilitation will improve your dog's chances of making a full recovery from surgery and minimize lameness problems.

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Urinary Incontinence (Urethral Incontinence) in Dogs

Urethral incontinence is the loss of voluntary control of urination. The most common clinical sign is pooling or spotting of urine underneath your dog when it is sleeping or relaxed. Urethral incontinence is diagnosed based on clinical signs, medical history, and blood and urine tests. Bladder radiographs and ultrasonography are often performed to search for bladder stones or other abnormalities affecting urine storage and outflow. Treatment will be based on your pet's specific diagnosis. Medications that increase urethral sphincter tone such as phenylpropanolamine or imipramine, or hormone replacements such as estrogen or diethylstilbestrol are commonly used alone or in combination. In general, the prognosis is good.

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Hives (Urticaria) in Dogs

Urticaria or hives is a skin condition characterized by raised red skin welts and is caused by an allergic reaction. These swollen welts can appear anywhere on the body, including the face, lips, tongue, throat, and ears. Urticaria is generally caused by direct contact with a substance that causes an allergic reaction. Most cases of urticaria are self-limiting and cause no significant health threat to your pet. Antihistamines and corticosteroids by injection usually bring about a dramatic improvement, sometimes in as little as a few minutes.

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Uveitis in Dogs

Uveitis is an inflammation of one or more of the structures making up the uvea. Signs of uveitis are severe pain with an intense reddening of the visible parts of the eye. Measurement of intraocular pressure is often performed to diagnose uveitis. Treatment involves reducing the pain and inflammation in the eye as well as treating the initial cause of the disease.

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Cystitis in Dogs

By definition, cystitis means inflammation of the bladder. The most common cause of cystitis in dogs is an infection caused by bacteria. Other common causes include bladder stones, tumors or polyps in the bladder, and abnormal anatomy. The most common clinical sign is hematuria or blood in the urine. The first group of tests performed includes urinalysis, urine culture, and bladder palpation. Further diagnostics may include bladder radiographs, ultrasound, and contrast X-rays. Treatment is based on the cause.

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Degenerative Disc Disease in Dogs

The spinal cord is one of the most important and sensitive organ systems in the body. If it is damaged, the nerve cells do not regenerate but are replaced with fibrous or scar tissue. To protect it from damage, the spinal cord runs through a bony canal within the spine and is surrounded by protective bone everywhere except the junction of the vertebrae. These junctions are filled by rubber-like cushions called intervertebral discs. Degenerative disc disease causes spontaneous degeneration of the outer part of the disc, resulting in sudden disc rupture or herniation.

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Degenerative Joint Disease in Dogs

Degenerative joint disease is arthritis caused by deterioration and degeneration of tissues lining joints. Treatment includes regular gentle exercise, anti-inflammatory drugs and other medications, omega fatty acids, chondroprotectants, and possibly other nutraceuticals. Emerging therapies include rehabilitation therapy, acupuncture, and stem cell or platelet rich plasma therapies. Maintaining your dog’s weight can help prevent degenerative joint disease.

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Demodectic Mange in Dogs

Demodectic mange is caused by a parasitic mite that lives in the hair follicles of dogs. As long as the body's immune system is functioning properly, these mites cause no harm. Demodectic mange most often occurs when a dog has an immature or weakened immune system, allowing the number of skin mites to increase rapidly. Topical, oral, and injectable medications are available to treat demodectic mange.

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Demodectic Mange - Dipping Instructions for Dogs

Dipping for demodectic mange may be done by the veterinary health team, or at the owner's home. These instructions will help the dog owner treat their pet for mange in their home.

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Diabetes Insipidus in Dogs

Diabetes insipidus results in excessive drinking and urination. As many conditions cause these signs, a number of diagnostic tests including bloodwork and urinalysis need to be performed to rule out other causes. After more common causes are ruled out, a modified water deprivation test can confirm disease and an MRI or therapeutic trial can be performed. Diabetes insipidus results from reduced production of ADH from the brain or reduced sensitivity to ADH in the kidney. Treatment depends on the cause of the disease either replacing the lack of ADH with a synthetic replacement or using a hydrochlorothiazide and a low salt diet to decrease urine production.

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Diabetes Mellitus in Dogs - Overview

Diabetes is an inability of the body to regulate blood sugar often caused by an abnormality of the pancreas. It causes increased thirst, urination, appetite, and weight loss. Most dogs have type 1 diabetes caused by total or near destruction of the insulin producing cells and so insulin injections are required for treatment. Diabetes is diagnosed by detecting increased levels of glucose in the urine and blood. Diabetes treatment includes insulin injections and dietary manipulation with regular blood sugar monitoring. Financial costs can be high during the regulation period or if a complication arises and twice daily insulin injections are a lifelong commitment. If dogs receive too much insulin, they can become hypoglycemic resulting in weakness, coma, or even death.

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Diabetes Mellitus - Principles of Treatment in Dogs

Diabetes mellitus is an inability to regulate blood glucose caused by a loss of insulin production (Type I) or inadequate insulin supply or resistance (Type II). Dogs need insulin injections to manage diabetes. Sometimes special diets may help manage the disease. Response to insulin needs to be monitored to ensure adequate dosing and to avoid hypoglycemia caused by insulin overdose. Blood glucose curves are most commonly used for this including: in-clinic blood glucose curves, home glucose curves with hand-held glucometers and continuous glucose monitoring systems. Urine glucose testing and fructosamine testing may also be used to manage the disease. Hypoglycemia is the consequence of administering too much insulin compared to the amount of food ingested. Signs can range from lethargy to seizures and coma. It can be managed acutely with administration of sugar syrup to the gums but more severely affected dogs will need IV dextrose solutions.

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Diabetes Mellitus - Insulin Treatment in Dogs

Diabetes mellitus results from an inadequate production of insulin from the pancreas. The primary treatment is replacement by insulin injections. The body’s response to the injections needs to be regularly monitored by glucose curves over 12-24 hours. There are several glucometers that can be used at home for this purpose. Insulin must be stored and reconstituted carefully to ensure dosing is accurate. Giving subcutaneous injections of insulin can seem daunting at first, but by following the directions in this handout, it will quickly become second nature to both you and your pet. Hypoglycemia can result from too much insulin, not enough food, or excess exercise. Pet owners are trained to recognized hypoglycemia and treat or obtain emergency veterinary attention.

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Diarrhea Questionnaire and Checklist for Dogs

Diarrhea is a sign of disease, rather than a specific diagnosis. This handout provides some important questions that allows your veterinary health team to formulate an adequate history in a dog presenting with diarrhea.

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Ear Infections in Dogs (Otitis Externa)

Infection of the external ear canal (outer ear infection) is called otitis externa and is one of the most common types of infections seen in dogs. Some breeds, particularly those with large, floppy or hairy ears like Cocker Spaniels, Miniature Poodles, or Old English Sheepdogs, appear to be more prone to ear infections, but ear infections may occur in any breed. Ear infections are painful.

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Distemper in Dogs

Distemper is a highly contagious viral disease of domestic dogs and other animals such as ferrets, skunks, and raccoons. It is an incurable, often fatal, multisystemic (affecting multiple organs) disease that affects the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and central nervous systems. The disease is spread mainly by direct contact between a susceptible dog and a dog showing symptoms. The main clinical signs are diarrhea, vomiting, thick yellow discharge from the eyes and nose, cough and, in severe cases, seizures and neurological signs. As with most viral infections, there is no specific treatment. Fortunately we have highly effective vaccines to prevent this deadly disease.

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Ehrlichiosis in Dogs

Ehrlichiosis is a tick-borne disease primarily from the brown dog tick. Clinical signs can sometimes be missed and can vary from very subtle to severe, even possibly leading to death. Effective treatments are available and depending on the severity of the disease blood transfusions may be required. Many tick preventives are available to prevent this disease from occurring in your dog.

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Electrocardiogram in Dogs

An electrocardiogram (ECG, EKG) is a test that is used to assess the heart. More specifically, an ECG measures the transmission of an electrical impulse through the heart. This test is not painful and is typically performed as an outpatient procedure. Analyzing the electrical impulses produced as the heart beats can help identify a number of different abnormalities within the heart.

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Endocarditis in Dogs

Endocarditis is an infection of a heart valve, most often affecting the mitral or aortic valve. It can arise any time that bacteria enter the bloodstream, though it is more common when the heart valve has already been damaged for some other reason. This handout discusses the causes, clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of this condition.

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Epilepsy in Dogs

Epileptic seizures in pets are a diagnosis of exclusion and may be found in any dog but there may be some breed predispositions that are more common. The cause is often unknown. A variety of medications are available to help control the seizure activity if an underlying cause is not found.

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Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency in Dogs

The pancreas is an organ near the stomach and small intestine that produces enzymes needed for digestion, as well as releasing hormones (including insulin) that regulate body homeostasis including blood sugar levels. Dogs with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency are unable to digest nutrients in their diet properly resulting in maldigestion, weight loss, and abnormal feces – usually pale and fatty. The disease can be congenital, genetic, or acquired through pancreatic damage. This condition is most commonly diagnosed in young dogs with chronic diarrhea or fatty looking pale feces, increased appetite and gradual weight loss. A blood test called TLI can diagnose the disease, but B12 and folate levels should also be assessed to fully characterize the condition and guide treatment. Treatment involves life-long administration of pancreatic enzyme replacements with meals and treating any deficiency in cobalamin or small intestinal bacterial overgrowth. Prognosis is good with treatment although rarely diabetes is associated with the condition.

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Flatulence in Dogs

The excessive formation of gas in the stomach or intestine is referred to as flatulence. The most common cause of flatulence is a change in diet or dietary indiscretion. Most cases of chronic flatulence are caused by a diet that is poorly digested. Diagnosis is based on medical history and clinical signs. Treatment is based on diagnosis and often involves a change in diet. Diet recommendations include one that is highly digestible with low fiber and fat. Medical therapy may also be recommended. Small, frequent feedings are encouraged for dogs that eat rapidly or are hyperexcitable. Your veterinarian will outline a treatment plan specifically designed for your pet.

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Acute Hemorrhagic Diarrhea Syndrome in Dogs (Hemorrhagic Gastroenteritis)

Acute hemorrhagic gastroenteritis (AHDS) (also known as hemorrhagic gastroenteritis [HGE]), is an acute disorder of dogs characterized by vomiting and bloody diarrhea. AHDS can affect any breed, age, size, or gender of dog, but it is most common in small- and toy-breed dogs. The exact cause of AHDS remains unknown. An elevated hematocrit in combination with a low or normal total protein is an important clue that a dog may have AHDS. Intravenous fluid therapy with potassium and electrolyte supplementation provides the foundation of AHDS therapy. Dogs with AHDS may die, if left untreated.

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Glaucoma in Dogs

Glaucoma is a disease of the eye in which the pressure within the eye, called the intraocular pressure (IOP) is increased. Glaucoma is caused by inadequate drainage of aqueous fluid. It is classified as primary or secondary glaucoma. High intraocular pressure causes damage to occur in the retina and the optic nerve. Blindness can occur very quickly unless the increased IOP is reduced. Analgesics to control the pain and medications that decrease fluid production and promote drainage are often prescribed to treat glaucoma. The prognosis depends to a degree upon the underlying cause of the glaucoma.

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Congestive Heart Failure in Dogs

Congestive heart failure (CHF) is a term that refers to the heart's inability to pump adequate blood to the body. There are many causes of CHF in dogs. The two most common causes are mitral valve insufficiency (MVI), or a leaky mitral valve, the valve between the left atrium and the let ventricle and dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM).

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Dilated Cardiomyopathy in Dogs

Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a serious and often fatal condition in medium to larger breed dogs. Signs may be sudden or progressive in onset. Some signs include rapid breathing, increased effort with breathing, restless sleeping, coughing or gagging, among others. Early and proper diagnosis is key followed by treatment to give the best quality of life.

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Heartworm Disease in Dogs

Heartworm disease is a serious and potentially fatal disease. It is caused by a blood-borne parasite known as Dirofilaria immitis. Adult heartworms may live for five to seven years and, during this time, the female produces millions of offspring called microfilaria. You can prevent your dog from getting heartworms by using a heartworm preventive.

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Hematoma of the Ear in Dogs

Ear hematomas are a collection of blood, either fresh or clotted, within the pinna. Excessive or violent shaking causes one or more blood vessels to break, resulting in bleeding into the space between the ear cartilage and skin on the inner surface of the ear. There is often an underlying cause which must be treated but additionally, surgery or drainage should be done to help relieve discomfort. Failure to treat will lead to a misshapen ear.

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Hip Dysplasia in Dogs

Hip dysplasia is a deformity of the hip that occurs during growth. The result is laxity of the joint, followed by degenerative joint disease (DJD) or osteoarthritis (OA), which is the body's attempt to stabilize the loose hip joint. Hip dysplasia is a genetic disease that is affected by factors such as diet, environment, exercise, growth rate, muscle mass, and hormones. It is predominantly seen in larger dogs. Treatment depends upon the pet's clinical signs and amount of discomfort the pet is in.

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Hiatal Hernia in Dogs

Hiatal hernia refers to the protrusion of the abdominal contents into the chest cavity through the esophageal hiatus of the diaphragm and in most veterinary patients, appears to be a congenital. Diagnosis is based on medical history, clinical signs, and radiographs. Conservative medical treatment will usually be recommended for those with mild signs while surgery is often needed for those with severe cases.

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Abnormal Droppings in Birds

Abnormal droppings are a non-specific sign of illness in birds. Causes may range from a dietary intake of excess fruits to bacterial or viral intestinal infections and heavy metal toxicity. Any changes in the color or consistency of your bird's droppings should be addressed by your avian veterinarian.

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Aspergillosis in Birds

Aspergillosis is a fungal infection that commonly causes respiratory disease in pet birds. It can cause both upper (nose, sinuses, eye, and trachea) and lower (lungs and air sacs – a specialized part of the respiratory tract that birds have) respiratory problems or more broadly distributed systemic infections. Aspergillus is normally an environmental contaminant and is not contagious from bird to bird.

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Respiratory Disease in Birds

Respiratory disease is common in birds and can affect the upper respiratory tract or lower respiratory tract. Respiratory tract problems in birds can be caused by infection with bacteria, fungus, or parasites, from exposure to aerosolized toxins or environmental irritants, or from pressure on the respiratory tract from enlarged organs or tumors. Birds can have varying signs with respiratory disease, such as coughing, sneezing, ocular or nasal discharge, or difficulty breathing depending on where in the respiratory tract the problem lies. Teflon, when heated, emits an odorless and colorless gas that is fatal to birds if breathed in. Any bird showing respiratory tract signs should be examined and tested by a veterinarian as soon as possible so that appropriate treatment can be initiated. Administration of over-the-counter medications purchased at pet stores is not recommended for treating sick birds.

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Candida Infections in Birds

Candida albicans is a common environmental fungus that can affect the digestive tracts of birds. It is a common cause of 'sour crop' or a crop infection (ingluvitis), especially in young birds. Candida can be a primary or secondary cause of crop infections. Often, other diseases compromise the bird's immune system and predispose a bird to secondary Candida infection (candidiasis).

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Chlamydophilosis in Birds

Chlamydophilosis, also called "psittacosis", chlamydiosis or "Parrot Fever", is a reasonably common disease of birds. It can occur in any bird but is especially common in cockatiels, Amazon parrots and budgerigars (often referred to incorrectly as parakeets.)

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Chronic Egg Laying in Birds

Chronic egg laying occurs when a female bird lays more than the normal number of eggs or, more commonly, lays repeated clutches of eggs, especially in the absence of a mate. The persistent laying of eggs may lead to malnutrition induced by the chronic depletion of calcium from the body for the production of the egg shells.

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Horner's Syndrome in Dogs

Horner's syndrome is a common neurological disorder of the eye and facial muscles and can occur suddenly. Dysfunction of the sympathetic nerves of the eyes and surrounding facial muscles causes Horner’s syndrome and may be due to an injury such as a bite wound or blunt trauma, a tumor, intervertebral disc disease, or middle or inner ear disease. Often times the cause is unknown. If an underlying cause can be identified, treatments will target that; however, many cases will spontaneously recover after some time.

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Hypothyroidism in Dogs

Hypothyroidism is an abnormality of the thyroid gland leading to a reduction in the dog’s metabolic state. This can cause many systemic changes including weight gain, hair loss, lethargy, and susceptibility to infections – most noticeably of the skin and ears. Diagnosis is made by a series of blood tests. Treatment is oral thyroid hormone replacement and is lifelong. Clinical signs and blood hormone levels must be monitored regularly as thyroid hormone requirements can change.

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Hot Spots in Dogs

Hot spots are inflamed and often painful lesions that your dog may develop for a variety of reasons. Treatment is relatively simple but if hot spots recur, it is important to determine the underlying cause. Seasonal grooming, regular brushing, and bathing can help prevent hot spots from developing.

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Icterus (Jaundice) in Dogs

Icterus is also known as jaundice is an excessive accumulation of a yellow pigment in the blood and tissues, most easily seen in the gingivae and sclerae. Icterus can be caused by hemolysis, liver disease, or obstruction of the bile duct. Your veterinarian will perform screening tests to determine the root cause of icterus. Based on preliminary tests, your veterinarian may recommend fine needle aspiration, needle biopsy, or a surgical biopsy. Icterus will resolve once the underlying disease is identified and treated. The prognosis depends on the underlying cause.

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Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Dogs

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a syndrome affecting the stomach and/or intestines that can cause vomiting, diarrhea, and weight loss. It is considered a chronic condition that may have a good prognosis, though the diagnosis is not always easy. Treatment may involve a diet change, medications, or both and will need to be closely followed to prevent relapses.

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Insect Bite Reaction in Dogs

Bee stings and bites from spiders, fleas, and ticks are the most common causes of insect bite reactions in pets. Insect bites can cause mild to severe allergic reactions in many dogs. Fortunately, most reactions are minor and have an excellent prognosis for recovery. Treatment typically involves antihistamines and anti-inflammatory drugs.

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Cushing's Disease - Treatment Instructions with Mitotane for Dogs

Treatment for Cushing’s disease using mitotane involves two phases: initiating phase and maintenance phase. Monitoring your dog’s food and water intake is very important. This handout provides detailed treatment instructions for dogs prescribed mitotane. Follow your veterinarian’s instructions carefully and report changes in your dog’s behavior to your veterinarian.

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Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca (KCS) or Dry Eye in Dogs

Keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS) is a condition that is also commonly referred to as dry eye. It is a common eye condition resulting from inadequate production of the aqueous portion of the tear film by the lacrimal gland or the third eyelid gland. Any condition that impairs the ability to produce adequate amounts of tear film can result in dry eye. Most dogs with KCS have painful, red, and irritated eyes leading to squinting. The treatment of dry eye is to stimulate tear production and to replace tear film. The prognosis for dogs diagnosed with KCS has never been better.

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Kennel Cough or Tracheobronchitis in Dogs

Kennel cough is a broad term covering any infectious or contagious condition of dogs where coughing is one of the major clinical signs. It is also referred to as infectious tracheobronchitis. Several viruses and bacteria can cause kennel cough, often at the same time. Because the infection spreads when dogs are housed together, it is often seen soon after dogs have been in kennels, hence the name 'kennel cough'.

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Chronic Kidney Disease in Dogs

The kidneys have many functions. They principally act to remove waste products from the blood stream, regulate the levels of certain essential minerals such potassium and sodium, conserve water and produce urine. The kidneys have a large amount of spare capacity to perform their various functions so at least two-thirds of the kidneys must be dysfunctional before any clinical signs are seen.

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Lameness in Dogs

Lameness refers to an inability to properly use one or more limbs. It is most often associated with pain or injury. The most common causes of acute or sudden lameness in dogs are soft tissue injury (strain or sprain), injury to a joint, bone fracture, or dislocation. Osteoarthritis and hip dysplasia may also cause lameness in dog. Your veterinarian will determine the best course of action based on your pet's condition and the results of diagnostic tests. Lameness of unknown origin is common in dogs of all types and sizes. In some cases, a trial with anti-inflammatory medications may be necessary.

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Leishmaniasis in Dogs

Leishmaniasis is a serious condition spread by flies that can affect dogs, cats, and people. It can severely damage the internal organs or skin and even with treatment, the outcome is often not successful.

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Laryngeal Paralysis in Dogs

Laryngeal paralysis is a condition that causes dysfunction of the larynx causing reduced ability to breathe deeply and can obstruct the airway. It can be a congenital condition of young dogs or may be due to a neuromuscular disease in older dogs. Clinical signs include coughing, noisy breathing, and exercise intolerance. A definitive diagnosis is made through an examination of the larynx with an endoscope or laryngoscope. Treatment of mild cases involves environmental management to reduce any stress on the larynx and medications used for flareups. More severe or congenital cases require surgery.

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Lens Luxation in Dogs

The lens is the transparent structure within the eye that focuses light on the retina. The lens can fall backwards into the eye known as a posterior luxation, where it rarely causes discomfort, or it can fall forwards into the eye, called an anterior luxation. Anterior luxation blocks the drainage of fluid from the eye resulting in glaucoma or increased intra-ocular pressure (IOP). An anterior (forward) luxation is an emergency and can lead to further complications such as glaucoma and blindness. Surgery can help preserve vision if done promptly, but ultimately some cases may lead to removal of the entire eye. If the lens luxates posteriorly, or falls into the back of the eye, it causes little or no discomfort. These cases may not require any treatment.

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Lumbosacral Syndrome in Dogs

Cauda equina syndrome or lumbosacral syndrome is a condition caused by the narrowing of the spinal canal and results in compression of the spinal nerve roots; pressure on the nerves that exit the spine cause the clinical signs. This pressure may be due to a narrowed spinal canal caused by arthritis, intervertebral disc herniation, an infection in the disc, trauma, congenital malformation, or a spinal tumor. Dogs with lumbosacral syndrome are in pain. If the clinical signs and radiographs are suggestive of cauda equina syndrome, a myelogram, is performed. Treatment of cauda equina involves either conservative medical treatment or surgical intervention. This is dependent upon the duration and severity of the signs, as well as the owner's finances.

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Lick Granuloma in Dogs

Lick ganuloma occurs when a dog obsessively licks at an area on the lower limb, most commonly the wrist or carpal joint of the front limb. This condition is thought to be both physical and psychological in nature. However, there is a definite strong psychological component (e.g., fear, anxiety, or obsessive-compulsive disorder). The condition occurs mainly in medium to large breeds, particularly Doberman Pinschers, Great Danes, Labrador Retrievers, Golden Retrievers, and Irish Setters. Most dogs require treatment aimed at the inflammation, infection, and psychological components for resolution.

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Sarcoptic Mange in Dogs

Sarcoptic mange is caused by a parasitic mite that burrows just beneath the surface of the skin. The Sarcoptes mites can bury into the skin of healthy adult dogs and puppies and feeds on material in and on the skin. The presence of the sarcoptic mite causes intense itching. There are several medications that are effective against Sarcoptes.

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Malabsorption and Bacterial Overgrowth in Dogs

Bacterial overgrowth is a condition of the small intestine resulting in increased numbers of bowel bacteria. The major concern with bacterial overgrowth is the development of a condition called small intestinal bacterial overgrowth. The bacteria cause damage to the surface of the bowel so digested food cannot be absorbed resulting in malabsorption of nutrients. Malabsorption and SIBO both result in diarrhea but with bacterial overgrowth the diarrhea is chronic. Many cases respond to long term antibiotics.

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Mitral Valve Disease in Dogs

Mitral valve disease is often one of the earliest indicators of heart disease that could lead to heart failure. It is more common in small dogs than large breeds. The earliest sign of a leaking mitral valve is normally a heart murmur, and eventually, congestive heart failure develops. Diagnostic tests will help determine what stage your dog is at and can help guide treatment. Treatment varies depending on the results of the various tests. Many patients can live a good quality of life for many years after diagnosis.

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Vaginitis in Dogs

Vaginitis (inflammation of the vagina) may be concerning when observed but has a good prognosis especially if the underlying cause is identified and treated early. The most common clinical signs of vaginitis include increased frequency of urination, licking of the vaginal area, vaginal discharges of mucus, pus, or blood , and scooting or rubbing of the vaginal area. Diagnosis may be simple based on history and signs, though some tests may be necessary or useful. Most cases of vaginitis respond well to conservative treatment.

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Pancreatitis in Dogs

The pancreas is a vital organ that produces enzymes to assist in food digestion and hormones such as insulin, which regulates blood sugar or glucose metabolism. When the pancreas becomes inflamed, the condition is called pancreatitis. Pancreatitis commonly occurs in the dog.

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Common Conditions of Pet Birds

Pet birds often become ill when they are not cared for or fed appropriately. Birds can develop infections with bacteria such as Chlamydia psittaci and parasites such as Giardia. They also commonly suffer from reproductive problems, such as egg binding and reproductive tumors. Many feather-pick when psychologically stressed or sexually frustrated. Birds on all-seed, high-fat diets may become obese and develop fatty liver syndrome. Older birds may develop cloacal papillomas or cancer. Your veterinarian familiar with birds will formulate an appropriate diagnostic and treatment plan if your pet bird becomes ill.

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Parvovirus in Dogs

Parvo, or canine parvovirus (CPV) infection is a relatively new disease that appeared for the first time in dogs in 1978. Because of the severity of the disease and its rapid spread through the canine population, CPV has aroused a great deal of public interest. Two slightly different strains of canine parvovirus, named CPV-2a and CPV-2b, are recognized. They cause the same disease and vaccines give protection against both.

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Pannus in Dogs (Chronic Superficial Keratitis)

Chronic superficial keratitis (CSK), or pannus, is a potentially blinding disease affecting the cornea. Any dog breed can be affected by pannus, but it is predominantly seen in German Shepherd dogs, Belgian Shepherd breeds, and Border Collies. Diagnosis is based on medical history and clinical signs. Treatment involves using topical corticosteroids or other immune modulating drugs. If diagnosed early and treatment plans are followed, many dogs can have a good prognosis and live a normal life.

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Vestibular Disease in Dogs

Vestibular disease refers to a sudden, non-progressive disturbance of balance. It is more common in older dogs. Causes of vestibular disease include middle or inner ear infections, drugs that are toxic to the ear, trauma or injury, tumors, and hypothyroidism. When no specific cause is found, the condition is called idiopathic vestibular syndrome. Diagnosis is based on medical history, clinical signs, and the results of blood and urine tests. In some cases, diagnostic testing might include blood pressure measurement, or radiographs (X-rays) of the head to assess the appearance of the middle and inner ears and the tympanic bullae. Treatment is directed at the underlying cause, if one can be identified. In severe cases, supportive therapy such as intravenous fluids and hospitalization may be required until the dog can eat and walk on its own. The clinical signs associated with vestibular disease are often most severe during the first twenty-four to forty-eight hours. Many pets begin to improve within seventy-two hours. A referral to a veterinary neurologist may be advised.

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Pododermatitis in Dogs

Pododermatitis is a term used to describe inflammation of the feet or paws. It can be caused by many disorders including infections, allergies, hormonal disorders, immune-mediated diseases, tumors or cancers. Diagnostic testing is discussed. Effective treatment must be directed toward the underlying cause.

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Prostatic Disease in Dogs

Diseases of the prostate can be uncomfortable for a dog particularly with compression of the urethra or colon. In order to diagnose the underlying cause of the enlarged prostate, various tests will be performed including urinalysis and fine needle aspiration of the prostate gland. Treatment plans are determined by the underlying disease.

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Portosystemic Shunt in Dogs

A portosystemic shunt causes a bypass of blood from the gastrointestinal tract directly into the systemic circulation, avoiding the normal detoxifying process that happens in the liver and reducing nutrient input into the liver. Liver shunts can be congenital defects (failure of closure of the ductus venosus or inappropriate vascular development) or acquired (development of extra vessels caused by portal vein hypertension). Clinical signs include failure to thrive (runt), head pressing or other neurological signs especially after high protein meals, delay in anesthetic recovery, increased urination, and vomiting or diarrhea. CBC and biochemistry can be altered in a dog with a portosystemic shunt (e.g., microcytic anemia, low BUN, glucose, elevated ALT) and urinalysis can show abnormal crystals and possibly infection. Bile acids will be elevated. CT, ultrasound, or other more advanced imaging will confirm and locate the shunt. Initial treatment includes a change to a low protein diet, lactulose to absorb ammonia and other toxins, and antibiotics to change the bacterial population of the intestines. Some dogs do well with medical management; however, many need surgical treatment to gradually close off the shunt. Surgery is very successful and dogs return to normal in 2-4 months.

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Pruritus - Itching and Scratching in Dogs

Pruritus is the medical term for itching and is a common clinical sign of many skin disorders. It is often accompanied by red, inflamed areas of skin and may lead to skin infection called pyoderma. Flea allergy dermatitis, seasonal allergies, atopy, food allergies, contact dermatitis, and sarcoptic mange are some of the most common causes of pruritus in dogs. In the majority of dogs pruritus is seasonal and the most common causes are inhalant allergies, fleabites and food allergies.

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Egg Binding in Birds

Egg binding is not uncommon in birds and may be resolved easily if treated early. Egg binding occurs when the female bird is unable to expel the egg from her body. If a prolonged period has elapsed since the bird began attempting to lay the egg, she may become critically ill. Birds with egg binding may or may not have passed an egg more than 2 days ago, are usually weak, not perching, often sitting low on the perch or on the bottom of the cage, and are straining as if trying to defecate or to lay an egg. Treatment varies depending upon how sick the bird is, as well as the location of the egg and the length of time the bird has been egg bound. Critically ill birds are first treated supportively for shock, and then attempts are made to extract the egg. If your veterinarian cannot see the egg through the vent, surgery under general anesthetic may be necessary to remove the egg from the abdomen. A hysterectomy (removal of the oviduct and uterus) is typically the last choice therapy, when medical and egg extraction through the vent are not possible.

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Crop Infections in Birds

Crop infections in birds are not as common as they once were, but are still a potentially dangerous condition in all avian species. A slowing or stoppage of crop motility can be caused by bacteria, yeast and a variety of viruses. Early veterinary attention is essential to help treat this condition.

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Feather Problems in Birds

Feather loss occurs either because the bird is truly losing feathers or because the bird, or its cage-mate, is picking out its feathers. Feather-picking is often a behavioral problem, especially in the larger species of birds (such as cockatoos, macaws, and African gray parrots). However, feather loss and feather-picking can also be caused by diseases that result in irritation or pain for the bird, or damage to, or inappropriate growth of feathers. Your veterinarian may have to many perform several diagnostic tests to rule out potential causes. Treatment of feather loss depends on the cause. Feather loss and feather-picking are complicated problems; for specific advice, your bird should have a thorough work-up by a veterinarian familiar with birds.

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Vomiting in Dogs

Vomiting is the forceful evacuation of stomach contents. It is a clinical sign of a disease. Most cases of acute vomiting resolve quickly with simple treatment, without the underlying cause being diagnosed. Any required tests are determined based on physical examination of your pet and the signs your dog has been displaying at home.

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Von Willebrand's Disease in Dogs

Von Willebrand’s disease is a bleeding disorder that results from the lack of von Willebrand factor (vWF), a protein needed to help platelets clump together and seal broken blood vessels. Affected dogs have varying amounts of vWF. Doberman Pinschers are the most common breed affected but they are mildly affected compared to Scottish terriers and Chesapeake Bay retrievers. Dogs can develop bleeding at any time in their life. Certain drugs that interfere with platelet function should be avoided in affected dogs. Treatment of severely affected dogs requires a blood or plasma transfusion. Screening of breeding animals is recommended to reduce the incidence of the disease.

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Kidney Disorders in Birds

Kidneys are paired organs in the abdomen that filter the waste products of metabolism from the blood for excretion from the body. They are also important in maintaining water and electrolyte balance in the body.

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Liver Disorders in Birds

The liver is an important organ that is involved with digesting food, storing and filtering the blood, and with many other metabolic functions. Because it has so many functions, a healthy liver is extremely important.

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Walking Your Dog for Weight Loss

Walking is an excellent way for dogs to burn more calories helping weight loss. A short leash and head halter or harness are recommended to keep the walk going at a consistent, calorie-burning pace. Gradually work up to several 30-minute walks per day. Weigh your dog monthly until his goal weight is reached.

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Abnormal Weight Loss in Dogs

An unplanned weight loss of more than 10% of a dog’s body weight is considered abnormal. Weight loss occurs because calories absorbed from the diet do not meet the calories being used by the body. This can occur due to many factors including excessive cold or physical activity, disease states that heighten the metabolic rate, insufficient calories or poor diet, inability to ingest the diet, inability to digest and/or absorb the nutrients in the diet, and loss of nutrients from vomiting, diarrhea, or polyuria. As well as a thorough history and physical exam, testing such as bloodwork, urinalysis, and imaging may be needed to determine the underlying cause in order to institute targeted treatment.

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Yeast Dermatitis in Dogs

Yeast dermatitis or Malassezia dermatitis is an extremely common skin disease in dogs. Clinical signs include itchiness, redness, scaly or crusty skin, and foul odor. Yeast normally live on the skin of dogs but when there is a change in the health of the skin or the immune system of the dog, yeast are more likely to multiply and a yeast infection results. Samples are taken from the affected area and examined under the microscope for confirmation of diagnosis. Treatment involves resolving the underlying disorder and using topical and/or oral medications to treat the yeast.

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Seborrhea in Dogs

Seborrhea or seborrheic dermatitis is a skin disorder in which the sebaceous glands produce an excessive amount of sebum causing scaly, flaky, itchy, and red skin. It typically affects the back, face, and flanks. It may be worse in areas with skin folds such as the feet, neck, lips, armpits, thighs, and underside. Seborrhea can be a primary or secondary disease and is diagnosed by multiple tests to determine the underlying cause. Treatment is based on the cause and may include topical therapies, oral anti-inflammatories, and antibiotics.

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Seizures in Dogs

Seizures are one of the most frequently reported neurological conditions in dogs. A seizure may also be called a convulsion or fit, and is a temporary involuntary disturbance of normal brain function that is usually accompanied by uncontrollable muscle activity. There are many causes of seizures. Once anticonvulsant medication is started, it must be given for life.

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Obesity in Birds

Obesity is a major problem in older birds on seed-based diets and can contribute to diseases such as atherosclerosis (fat deposits in major arteries) and fatty liver disease (hepatic lipidosis). Unlike their wild counterparts, pet birds are not given as much opportunity for daily exercise. Pet birds often burn off very few calories in their daily lives. Many bird owners incorrectly feed their pet birds by offering a diet consisting mostly, or totally of high-fat seeds. Obese birds are extremely susceptible to heart attacks and strokes and have a higher anesthetic risk than normal-weight birds. Switching birds from all-seed diets to a more suitable diet consisting mainly of pellets, with smaller amounts of fresh vegetables and fruit, will decrease its overall daily intake of calories.

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Pyoderma in Dogs

Pyoderma, or skin infections, can be due to bacteria or fungal organisms and are often set up by damage to the skin barrier. Underlying causes such as allergies or hormonal imbalances may predispose your dog to recurrent issues. Treatment can be done with relative ease but must be carried out for the prescribed course.

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Pyometra in Dogs

Pyometra is defined as an infection in the uterus. Pyometra is considered a serious and life threatening condition that must be treated quickly and aggressively. The preferred treatment is to surgically remove the infected uterus and ovaries. Another approach to treating pyometra is the administration of prostaglandins, although the success rate is highly variable.

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Senior Dog Care - Special Considerations

Senior dogs are in the stage of life where aging begins to affect every organ system. Some organs wear out faster or are more susceptible to cumulative damage than others, so certain observations are critical. While it is true that old age is not a disease, older dogs do merit special attention, including routine health exams twice yearly. This is important so that if your dog develops a disease, it can be recognized and treated as early as possible, thereby maintaining his quality of life for as long as possible.

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Reverse Sneeze in Dogs

Reverse sneezing is the act of forceful convulsant inhalation. It is generally harmless and self-limiting. It is caused by an irritant in the nose, sinuses, or pharynx. Diagnosis is aimed at finding the source of the irritation and ruling out potential triggers. Most cases require no treatment; however, some affected dogs will require anti-inflammatories, antihistamines, or decongestants.

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Ringworm in Dogs

Ringworm infections in cats are caused by a fungus, not a worm. They can be easily recognized, though definitive testing by fungal culture is recommended. Ringworm is highly contagious and can be spread between animals and from animals to people. The clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, and risks are explained in this handout.

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Polyomavirus Infection in Birds

Avian polyomavirus infection (APV) of pet birds belongs to the family Polyomaviridae. APV can cause benign feather lesions in budgies, slow crop emptying in weanling parrots, hemorrhages on the skin, or acute death. Species particularly susceptible to APV infection include budgies, Eclectus parrots, Caiques, and hawk-head parrots. Clinical signs, diagnostic testing, and preventive measures are explained in this handout.

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Proventricular Dilatation in Birds

Proventricular dilatation disease (PDD) is a very serious and often deadly disease affecting a wide variety of parrot species. Symptoms often involve one of the following conditions; vomiting, weight loss, passing undigested seeds in the stool or show neurologic signs. Avian Bornavirus infection has been linked in some cases to PDD.

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Poxvirus Infection in Birds

Poxviruses can infect many species of birds, and each species of bird may have its own unique species of poxvirus. This handout explains three forms of the virus: cutaneous, diphtheroid, and septicaemic. Each of these forms has distinct clinical signs. Diagnosis, treatment, and ways to minimize the risk of infection in your bird are explained.

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Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease in Pet Birds

Psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD) is a serious condition in parrot species for which there is no cure. The highly contagious virus attacks fast-growing epithelial cells, commonly causing visibly abnormal formations of the beak and/or feather follicles. The clinical signs vary depending on the species of bird and the age at which it was infected. Diagnostic testing is available and precautions must be taken when purchasing a new bird.

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Recognizing the Signs of Illness in Pet Birds

In the wild, a bird will endeavor to uphold a strong appearance when sick. This is called, survival of the fittest. By the time a pet bird actually shows an owner that it is unwell, it has likely been sick for some time. Many things contribute to ill health. This handout provides bird owners a categorized list of signs that should alert them that their bird is sick.

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Seizures in Birds

Seizures are reasonably common in pet birds and should be treated as a medical emergency. Species that are often affected include Amazon parrots, African grey parrots, budgies, canaries, cockatiels, finches, and lovebirds. There are several possible causes of seizures in birds. Diagnostic testing is often required so that your veterinarian can diagnose the problem and determine the necessary treatment plan.

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Testing and Diagnostics for Sick Pet Birds

Wellness testing, performed routinely on apparently healthy birds, screens for underlying, inapparent problems. Veterinarians also use test results in conjunction with physical examination findings and the owner’s account of the bird’s history to diagnose illnesses. Blood tests include the complete blood count and chemistry profile. Other tests your veterinarian may use to assess your bird’s health and diagnose disease include Gram’s stain, culture and sensitivity testing, parasitology, X-rays, laparoscopic surgery, cytology, histopathology, virology, and genetic (PCR) testing. Post-mortem examination after a bird dies may be recommended to determine the cause of death.

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Staphylococcal Dermatitis and Staphylococcal Hypersensitivity in Dogs

Staph (or staphylococcal) dermatitis is an inflammatory skin condition that the skin caused by a group of bacteria called Staphylococcus. Any disorder that causes itching or a change in the skin’s environment can create the ideal conditions to allow Staphylococcus to become a problem. Common causes of itching include fleas, inhalant/seasonal allergy, and food allergy. Other diseases that affect the health of the skin include seborrhea and hormonal imbalances (e.g., hypothyroidism). Staph dermatitis is usually sensitive to several oral antibiotics but antibacterial shampoos, sprays, and spot-ons can also be helpful in bringing about rapid control of the infection. Staphylococcal hypersensitivity can also occur and can be difficult to differentiate from staph dermatitis. Staphylococcal bacterin injections can be used in the treatment of hypersensitivity to re-program the dog’s skin preventing the body from over-reacting to the bacteria.

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Aspergillosis in Dogs

This handout discusses aspergillosis in dogs, an infection, growth, or allergic response caused by the Aspergillus fungus. If your dog becomes infected, it can be confined to the nasal passages (nasal aspergillosis), or it can spread throughout the body (systemic aspergillosis). The clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of both conditions are outlined.

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Strokes in Dogs

Strokes are rare in dogs. Some common causes include a blood clot such as a thrombus or embolus that lodges in a cerebral blood vessel, or cerebral bleeding from trauma or as a result of thrombocytopenia; however, the cause is often unknown. Signs of a stroke are variable depending on the region or regions of the brain affected, and the degree and duration of blood and oxygen deprivation. Magnetic resonance imaging is the ideal diagnostic test for diagnosing a stroke. Treatment is quite complex and there is no guarantee of complete success. Your veterinarian will help you assess progress and plan remedial action.

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Autoimmune Skin Disease in Dogs

The body has an immune system that protects from foreign invaders that can cause disease and infection, however, if with an autoimmune disease, the immune system attacks itself by mistake, causing illness.

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Feather Cysts in Birds

A feather cyst is a malformation of a feather follicle whereby the feather(s) do not exit the skin, and instead become buried in a cyst under the skin. They can become quite large and be painful to the pet. These cysts require veterinary attention and if injured, may bleed extensively.

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Polyfolliculosis in Birds

Polyfolliculosis is a condition where several feathers grow out of one feather follicle. These feathers may be irritating, causing the bird to pick at them or pluck them out. There is no specific treatment for this condition.

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Chinchillas - Health Conditions

Chinchillas are generally hardy animals but are susceptible to several unique health conditions; understanding them will help you care for your pet and manage potential health problems. This handout describes the most common conditions seen in pet chinchillas.

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Chinchillas - Problems

Chinchillas are generally hardy animals but can have several unique problems; understanding them will help you care for your pet and manage potential health problems.

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Diseases in Ferrets

Common conditions of pet ferrets include diarrhea, intestinal foreign bodies, parasites, heart disease, and various types of tumors. Any variation from normal should be a cause for concern and should be immediately evaluated by your veterinarian.

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Gastrointestinal Diseases in Ferrets

Gastrointestinal disease occurs commonly in ferrets - from dental disease, through gastrointestinal foreign bodies to persistent diarrhea. Some, such as foreign bodies, are readily prevented, while others require considerable diagnostic investigation and may need long-term treatment.

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Hormonal Diseases in Ferrets

There are four major hormonal diseases in ferrets. This handout covers adrenal gland disease and diabetes mellitus. Adrenal gland disease occurs in a large number of ferrets in North America, while diabetes mellitus is a rare, but important problem.

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Ferrets - Problems

Ferrets have several unique problems; understanding these problems will allow you to better care for your pet and minimize future health care problems.

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Reproductive Diseases in Ferrets

Reproductive disease in ferrets is rare today, as most pet ferrets are spayed or neutered at a young age. One disease that is still occasionally seen in pet ferrets occurs in females that are not spayed. This is called hyperestrogenemia and is a result of persistently high blood levels of estrogen in unspayed females that are not bred or fails to ovulate.

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Respiratory Diseases in Ferrets

Ferrets are susceptible to a number of different diseases of the respiratory system. The symptoms of respiratory disease are similar, regardless of the cause. Some respiratory diseases can be fatal, and it is important to attempt to determine the cause of disease in order to determine a prognosis.

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Skin Diseases in Ferrets

Ferrets commonly develop skin disease, including infections with parasites (fleas, mites, ticks), bacteria, viruses (distemper), and fungus (ringworm). They are also subject to both benign and malignant tumors, including mast cell tumors. Adrenal tumors also cause hair loss and itchy skin in ferrets. All skin problems should be brought to the attention of your veterinarian, who will recommend the most appropriate treatment for the specific problem.

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Hedgehogs - Diseases

Common conditions of pet hedgehogs include external and internal parasites, ringworm, cancer, gastrointestinal diseases and pneumonia.

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Hedgehogs - Problems

Hedgehogs can have several unique problems, including cancer, dental disease, obesity, and foreign bodies. It is important for an owner to understand what these problems are so veterinary care can be provided to their hedgehog when needed and in a timely manner.

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Iguanas - Diseases

When well looked after, and given a good diet and environment, iguanas are reasonably hardy animals. Common conditions of pet iguanas include metabolic bone disease, infectious stomatitis (mouth rot), parasites, respiratory disease, and hypervitaminosis D.

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Iguanas - Problems

Iguanas have several unique disease problems; understanding these problems will allow you to better care for your pet and minimize future health care problems.

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Prairie Dogs - Diseases

Common conditions of pet prairie dogs include obesity, dental disease, respiratory disease, heart disease, and parasites. Prairie dogs can also be afflicted with cancer and ringworm.

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Degenerative Myelopathy in Dogs

Degenerative myelopathy, a disease affecting the spinal cord, results in slowly progressive hind limb weakness and paralysis. It is considered a disease of middle-aged to older dogs including German Shepherds, German Shepherd crosses, Siberian Huskies, and Collies. It will be suspected on the basis of breed, medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests. Unfortunately, there is no effective treatment and is a progressive, incurable disease.

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Diarrhea in Dogs

Diarrhea is unformed or loose bowel movements, usually with increased amount and frequency. It is a result of faster movement of fecal material through the intestine combined with decreased absorption of water, nutrients, and electrolytes. Diarrhea is not a disease, but rather is a sign of many different diseases. Causes of diarrhea may be determined through a combination of history, physical examination, and fecal testing. Diarrhea is often treated symptomatically with dewormers, probiotics, metronidazole or tylosin, and a special gastrointestinal diet. Chronic diarrhea, that has been present longer than two to three weeks, may prove more difficult to diagnose and treat effectively.

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Ectopic Cilia or Eyelash Problems in Dogs

Ectopic cilia can be an irritating eye problem for many dogs. Growing abnormally through the conjunctiva (the pink part of the eye), they come into contact with the cornea and can cause chronic discomfort to the eye and corneal ulceration. Surgery is necessary to help to correct the problem and help dogs live a more comfortable life. The prognosis for surgical correction of this condition is generally good.

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Eyelid Ectropion in Dogs

Ectropion, or outward rolling of the eyelid, can cause problems such as recurring conjunctivitis and drying out of the cornea. The clinical signs are a 'sagging' or 'rolling outward' lower eyelid. A thick mucoid discharge often accumulates along the eyelid margin. Diagnosis is usually made on physical examination. Acquired ectropion can occur in any dog at any age. Testing for hypothyroidism and for antibodies against certain muscle fibers may be done if looking for underlying causes. The treatment for mild ectropion generally consists of medical therapy; if the condition is severe, surgical correction can be performed to shorten the eyelids.

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Eyelid Entropion in Dogs

Entropion, or rolling in of the eyelids, is seen in many breeds and is considered a hereditary disorder. Most dogs will squint, hold the eye shut, and tear excessively (epiphora) though some patients will develop a mucoid discharge. Entropion can cause additional eye problems, such as corneal ulcers, perforations, or development of pigment on the cornea interfering with vision and can be chronically irritating to the dog. Entropion is corrected with surgery.

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Eye Discharge (Epiphora) in Dogs

Epiphora or excessive tearing from the eyes can be a sign of tear duct blockage or more serious eye problems. Clinical signs include dampness beneath the eyes, reddish-brown staining of the fur beneath the eyes, odor, skin irritation, and skin infection. The facial anatomy of brachycephalic breeds may play a role in this condition. Treatment may include flushing of the nasolacrimal duct, or surgery to open the lacrimal puncta. The prognosis is variable and dependent on whether the underlying cause can be found and treated.

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Nose Bleeds (Epistaxis) in Dogs

Epistasis is the condition of bleeding from the nostril. First aid for epistaxis includes keeping your dog calm and applying an icepack over his nose. Your veterinarian will try to diagnose the cause of the bleeding through a combination of a detailed history, blood and urine tests including clotting tests, blood pressure, X-rays, and sample collections for cultures. There are many potential causes of epistaxis with the most common being trauma and nasal tumors. Treatment is aimed at the underlying condition.

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Fragmented Coronoid Process (FCP) in Dogs

FCP is a developmental defect of one of the coronoid processes. A genetic component is thought to be involved and males appear to be more commonly affected. It is usually seen in large breed dogs such as Bernese Mountain Dogs, Golden Retrievers, Labrador Retrievers, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds. Lameness usually develops in the foreleg of young dogs. Several radiographs of each affected leg, with the leg in different positions, are necessary in order to get an accurate assessment of various bones and joints. Surgery is the treatment of choice for this condition, and its aim is to remove any abnormal cartilage or bone in an attempt to return the joint to a more normal anatomy and function.

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Frostbite in Dogs

Frostbite is the damage that is caused to the skin and other tissues due to extreme cold. The paws, ears, and tail are the most common tissues to be affected. Diagnosis is usually based on the dog's medical history and physical examination. If you suspect your dog has frostbite, you should seek medical attention immediately. Mild cases of frostbite usually resolve with little permanent damage, while more severe frostbite may result in permanent disfiguration or alteration of the affected tissues. In severe cases, some dogs require surgical removal of the necrotic tissue or amputation.

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Gastritis in Dogs

Gastritis is defined as inflammation of the lining of the stomach. The most common clinical signs associated with gastritis are sudden vomiting and decreased appetite (anorexia). Other clinical signs may include dehydration, lethargy or depression, increased thirst, blood in the vomit or feces, and abdominal pain. In acute cases, only minimal diagnostics such as blood and urine tests are required. Treatment is based on the specific cause. Most acute cases resolve without medical intervention.

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Gastroenteritis in Dogs

Gastroenteritis refers to inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, meaning the stomach and the intestines. It can be caused by infection with bacteria, viruses, or parasites, medications, or even new foods. The condition often causes abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting, and/or other clinical signs. Gastroenteritis is a diagnosis of exclusion. The principal treatment of gastroenteritis is rehydration and restoration of blood electrolyte balance (sodium, potassium, and/or chloride). Most cases of acute gastroenteritis improve rapidly after rehydration.

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Glomerulonephritis in Dogs

Glomerulonephritis, also known as glomerular nephritis (GN), is a specific type of renal (kidney) disease characterized by inflammation of the glomeruli, which are the tiny structures in the kidneys that act as filters for the blood.

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Dental Disease in Rabbits

Rabbits have incisors plus molars in the back of the mouth for grinding and chewing. Rabbits also have two small, tube-shaped incisors (peg teeth) behind the large upper incisors. Since the teeth continuously grow, the upper teeth must meet the lower teeth to allow for proper wearing of tooth surfaces, preventing overgrowth. All teeth must meet and wear at the same rate as they are growing, or malocclusion with resultant improper tooth wear, and overgrowth of the incisors and/or molars, can occur. Overgrown teeth can cause many problems. leading to pain and infection. Rabbits with chronic dental problems need regular veterinary care including repeated dental filings. Feeding rabbits a diet of mainly high-fiber hay to promote chewing and teeth wear may help reduce the development of dental problems.

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Diseases in Rabbits

Common conditions of pet rabbits include upper respiratory tract infections, internal and external parasites, dental disease, GI stasis, uterine problems, and pododermatitis. Upper respiratory infections are often caused by bacteria including Pasteurella multocida. Rabbits can become infected with various intestinal parasites, as well as external parasites such as ear and fur mites, fleas, and occasionally ticks. Rabbits’ teeth are continuously growing but chewing food, as well as chewing on wooden blocks, branches, and toys, helps them wear their teeth down at a rate equal to their growth. Occasionally, tooth or jaw trauma or disease causes misalignment of the upper and lower jaws and overgrowth of teeth results. Regular yearly check-ups enables early diagnosis and treatment of some rabbit diseases. Whenever a rabbit stops eating, for whatever reason, it is important to take her to see your veterinarian immediately for an evaluation.

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Joint Subluxations in Dogs

A joint luxation is a dislocation or complete separation between the bones that normally articulate to form a joint. Subluxation is the term referring to a partial separation of the joint. The most commonly subluxated joints in dogs include the hip and elbow, although any joint can be affected. Your veterinarian may be suspicious of a joint subluxation based on a history of trauma and physical examination findings such as pain and limping. A radiograph is necessary to definitively diagnose a joint subluxation. In many cases, the joint can be reduced or replaced to its original orientation by a procedure called a closed reduction with prognosis being good if treated immediately.

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Lenticular Sclerosis in Dogs

Lenticular sclerosis is the term for a bluish transparent haze that develops in the lens of the eye in middle-aged to senior dogs. Vision does not appear to be significantly affected. While the exact mechanism is poorly understood, it appears that the lens gradually becomes harder with age. There is no specific treatment for lenticular sclerosis, nor is treatment necessary.

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Health Problems in Rabbits

Rabbits have unique gastrointestinal tracts and need a high-fiber, low-carbohydrate diet to help keep the normal GI bacteria fermenting their food. When they are fed a diet high in carbohydrate, administered certain types of antibiotics, or undergo a rapid diet change, they can develop life-threatening GI stasis. Rabbits with GI stasis become lethargic, dehydrated, weak, lose weight, and must be treated by a veterinarian as soon as possible. Only rarely do rabbits develop true GI tract obstructions from ingesting foreign objects and require surgery to remove the obstruction. Rabbits are coprophagic, consuming cecotropes overnight that serve as a source of critical protein and vitamins. Rabbits that eat high calcium alfalfa-based diets or high-calcium vegetables are prone to developing bladder stones that must be removed surgically. Bunnies housed at temperatures over 80°F are subject to heat stroke, since they cannot sweat and should be housed inside in a cool place, or if outside, should have plenty of shade and water.

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Diseases in Rodents

Common conditions of pet rodents include respiratory diseases, gastrointestinal problems, dental problems, and tumors. Signs of respiratory disease in rodents include nasal and/or ocular discharge in mild infections, and wheezing, coughing, and open-mouth breathing in severe infections. Gastrointestinal disease, including diarrhea from various causes and gastrointestinal stasis is common in pet rodents. All rodents have teeth that grow continuously throughout their lives. Occasionally, these teeth grow too long and cut into the gums, causing pain, or prevent the mouth from closing properly, which often makes the pet stop eating. Just as in people, cancer is often seen in pet rodents, especially mammary (breast) tumors in rats and mice. Rodents with signs of respiratory or GI disease or evidence of a tumor should be seen by a veterinarian who can properly diagnose and treat the underlying condition.

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Common Diseases of Pet Snakes

Common conditions of pet snakes include infectious stomatitis, parasites, skin infections, inclusion body disease, respiratory disease, and septicemia. Infectious stomatitis may not be a primary disease but may be secondary to an injury to the mouth or to husbandry issues such as poor nutrition, improper environmental temperature or humidity, or overcrowding. Both internal parasites and external parasites may cause diarrhea, breathing difficulties, regurgitation, swelling of internal organs, itching, skin irritation, anemia, mouth infection, and weight loss. Cryptosporidiosis can cause thickening of the stomach muscles, impaired digestion, vomiting, and weight loss. Dermatitis is often seen in snakes kept in environments that are too moist and/or dirty. Inclusion body disease is a serious viral disease in which affected snakes cannot right themselves when placed on their backs, may appear to be star gazing, and may be paralyzed. Most respiratory infections in snakes are caused by bacteria but may also be caused by viruses, fungi, and parasites. Septicemia in snakes occurs when bacteria and their toxins proliferate in the blood stream causing lethargy, lack of appetite, open-mouth breathing, red discoloration to the scales, and death.

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Common Problems in Pet Snakes

Anorexia means lack of appetite or refusal to eat. Anorexia can be a normal condition associated with the breeding season, egg bearing, or shedding. Anorexia can also be a symptom of an underlying environmental problem or diseases including infectious stomatitis, internal parasites, gastrointestinal blockage, intestinal infections, respiratory disease, kidney or liver failure, tumors, or gout. Salmonella can cause severe gastrointestinal disease or life-threatening septicemia. Many animals and people carry these bacteria without showing any clinical signs, yet they shed the bacteria in their feces and serve as a source of infection for others. Snakes commonly develop lumps and bumps either on their skin or within their bodies. External lumps may be caused by abscesses, tumors, or parasites. Internal swellings can be caused by organ enlargement, retained eggs in species of snakes that lay eggs, tumors, or even constipation. A healthy, well-maintained snake will shed its skin in one piece. Some snakes experience difficult or improper shedding. Burns occur with pet snakes when the animal, naturally seeking a warm place to rest, either finds a place that is too hot or stays in that hot spot too long. Offering live prey to a snake should be avoided, as live prey can cause severe bites and life-threatening injuries to the snake. Dystocia occurs when a female snake is unable to pass eggs and may require medical or surgical procedures.

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Common Diseases of Box Turtles

Turtles commonly suffer from vitamin A deficiency, respiratory diseases, abscesses, shell infections and fractures, and parasites. Vitamin A deficiency occurs as a result of feeding turtles an inappropriate diet. Symptoms include a lack of appetite, lethargy, swelling of the eyelids, swelling of the ear, kidney failure, and respiratory infections. Respiratory tract infections are most often caused by bacteria. Abscesses are treated surgically. Shell infections can be challenging to treat. Gastrointestinal parasites are treated with appropriate deworming medications. Seek immediate veterinary care if there is any deviation from normal in your pet turtle.

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Panosteitis in Dogs

Panosteitis is a painful inflammation of the outer surface or shaft of one or more long bones of the legs. It is sometimes called growing pains. Panosteitis is a condition that affects young, rapidly growing dogs. Panosteitis will be suspected if the patient shows pain when pressure is applied to the affected bone(s). The diagnosis is confirmed by X-rays, which usually show a characteristic increase in the density of the affected bones. Although this disease is self-limiting, and will spontaneously resolve, during episodes of lameness the condition is very painful. At these times, treatment is supportive, using analgesics and anti-inflammatory drugs as needed.

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Perianal Fistula in Dogs

Perianal fistula, also known as anal furunculosis is a serious medical condition that most commonly affects German Shepherd dogs. Perianal fistulas are characterized by chronic, purulent, smelly, ulcerating, sinus tracts in the anal region and surrounding skin. More recent studies indicate that the condition is more likely caused by an autoimmune disease. Medical management with immune-modulating drugs is now the preferred therapy. In severe cases, surgery is required to debride or remove as much infected tissue as possible.

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Bearded Dragons - Diseases

The bearded dragon is a well-known lizard currently considered one of the best pet lizards. If they are well looked after, with a good diet and proper environment, bearded dragons are reasonably hardy animals. Common healthconditions of pet bearded dragons include metabolic bone disease,infectious stomatitis (mouth rot), parasites, respiratory infections, andadenovirus infection.

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False Pregnancy or Pseudopregnancy in Dogs

False pregnancy refers to a display of maternal behaviors combined with the physical signs of pregnancy following estrus in unspayed female dogs that are not actually pregnant. Signs include mammary gland enlargement with or without the production of milk, lethargy, periodic vomiting, and fluid retention. Mild cases typically are not treated; however, if your dog appears physically ill or the behavioral changes are severe enough to cause concern, treatment may include tranquilization and treatment with diuretics. If your dog will not be used for breeding, ovariohysterectomy is recommended.

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Skin Fold Pyoderma in Dogs

Skin fold pyoderma occurs in a few select breeds of dogs though dogs that are obese can also suffer from this condition. Signs of skin fold infection include discharge, redness, and a foul or musty odor. While it can be simple to treat, proper hygiene can help prevent it from happening or recurring.

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Bearded Dragons - Problems

Bearded dragons have several unique problems; understanding these problems will allow you to better care for your pet and minimize future health care problems. These problems include Salmonella, avascular necrosis, abscesses, and dystocia.

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Health Problems in Guinea Pigs

Guinea pigs can be hardy and easy to care for when provided an appropriate environment for their unique needs. Like all animals, guinea pigs are susceptible to certain problems and diseases. This handout outlines the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for some of the more common health problems of guinea pigs.

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Reptiles: Dystocia

Abdominal swelling in any reptile is always a concern that needs to be brought to the attention of a veterinarian well versed in reptile medicine. In female reptiles, this swelling often means that the individual has eggs or fetus that are ready to be delivered. When the female cannot deliver the eggs or babies, this is referred to as dystocia. This condition can be life threatening and need attention ASAP.

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Reptiles: Gout

Swellings on or around the joints in reptiles can be an indication of uric acid deposits in the area. This condition is referred to as gout. Gout is often painful and may also affect internal organs. Treatment will require medications and sometimes surgery.

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Common Diseases of Aquatic Turtles

Turtles commonly suffer from vitamin A deficiency, respiratory diseases, abscesses, shell infections, shell fractures, and parasites. Vitamin A deficiency (hypovitaminosis A) occurs as a result of feeding turtles an inappropriate diet. Symptoms include a lack of appetite, lethargy, swelling of the eyelids, swelling of the ear, kidney failure, and respiratory infections. Respiratory tract infections are most often caused by bacteria. Abscesses are treated surgically and may also require antibiotics. Shell infections can be challenging to treat. Gastrointestinal parasites are treated with appropriate deworming medications. Seek immediate veterinary care if there is any deviation from normal in your aquatic turtle.

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Diabetes in Cats - Testing and Monitoring

Testing for diabetes includes confirming hyperglycemia and glucosuria while looking for other conditions by checking a CBC (anemia, infection), biochemistry profile (hepatic disease, pancreatitis) and a urinalysis (urinary tract infection). Monitoring includes regular glucose curves and additional exams and testing based on the pet owner’s monitoring of their cat’s clinical signs in the home setting. Urine glucose testing and fructosamine are sometimes used in diabetic monitoring and urine testing for infection may be recommended.

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Diabetes in Dogs - Testing and Monitoring

Testing for diabetes includes confirming hyperglycemia and glucosuria while looking for other conditions by checking a CBC (anemia, infection), biochemistry profile (hepatic disease, pancreatitis) and a urinalysis (urinary tract infection). Monitoring includes regular glucose curves and additional exams and testing based on the pet owner’s monitoring of their dog’s clinical signs in the home setting. Urine glucose testing and fructosamine are sometimes used in diabetic monitoring and urine testing for infection may be recommended.

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Epistaxis in Horses

Epistaxis means simply bleeding from the nose. The term can therefore cover anything from a tiny trickle down one nostril to a heavy gushing from both nostrils. Blood that appears at the nostril can originate from anywhere in the upper or lower respiratory tract including the sinuses or other closely related structures of the head.

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Canker in Horses

Canker is now rarely seen but is a serious infection of the horn of the foot, that results in the formation of a soft, moist, disintegrating growth of horn. It most commonly affects the hind feet and is most often seen in horses kept in wet tropical climates, or in large draught type horses.

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Contracted Tendons in Horses

The term 'contracted tendons' describes a condition where the leg is excessively straight, usually at the fetlock or coronary band, i.e., corono-pedal joint, but it occasionally also affects the knees.

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Equine Metabolic Syndrome (EMS)

This condition takes its name from the comparable human condition, metabolic syndrome. It is a complex, multi-factorial problem involving numerous body systems. In humans it increases the risk of stroke, heart attack, diabetes and other potentially serious medical disorders.

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Heart Murmurs in Horses

A heart murmur is an abnormal sound that originates from the heart valves and can be heard with a stethoscope skillfully placed over the heart valves.

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Tying-up - (Monday Morning Disease in Horses)

This is a common condition, invariably associated with exercise, that most frequently causes hindlimb stiffness, but can affect any of the muscles of the skeleton. Other medical terminologies include 'acute myopathy' and 'rhabdomyolysis'.

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Navicular Syndrome in Horses

Navicular 'disease' is really a group of related conditions affecting the navicular bone and associated structures in the foot. There are several possible causes of pain in and around the navicular bone.

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Osteochondrosis (OCD) in Horses

Osteochondrosis (OCD) is a failure of the bone underlying the smooth articular cartilage inside the joints, i.e. the subchondral bone, to form properly from the skeleton's cartilage template.

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Pituitary Pars Intermedia Dysfunction in Horses

Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID, previously known as Equine Cushing's Disease) is a complex condition associated with abnormal function of a small, hormone-producing organ, the pituitary gland, that lies at the base of the brain.

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Pus in the Foot (Gravel) in Horses

Infection in the foot is by far, the most common cause of acute (sudden), single-leg lameness in the horse. Infection results in painful inflammation and pus (abscess) formation.

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Quittor in Horses

Quittor is an old term for a condition that involves death and destruction (necrosis) of the collateral cartilages of the foot (see our information sheet on sidebones), following an infection in the foot (see our information sheet on pus in the foot).

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Recurrent Airway Obstruction in Horses

RAO (previously called chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or COPD) is a relatively common cause of coughing and nasal discharge in stabled horses. In long-standing cases the horse may have difficulty in breathing and its chest and abdomen can be easily seen to move, hence the even older name 'heaves'.

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Ruptured Bladder in Horses

This is one of the conditions that affect young foals during their first few days of life. It is potentially life-threatening. Some cases occur when the full urinary bladder wall tears in response to high pressure during delivery whereas others result from incomplete development (closure) of the bladder wall leaving a hole in the wall.

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Spavin in Horses

'Spavin' is a common condition in ponies and horses of all ages. There are two forms of spavin; bone spavin and bog spavin. Both affect the hock.

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Sidebones in Horses

Sidebones are a name for a condition that results in ossification of the collateral cartilages of the foot, i.e., the cartilages transform into much harder and less flexible bone.

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Urticaria or Hives in Horses

Urticaria or 'hives' is a common skin condition in which well-defined raised areas (lumps, wheals or rings) occur in the superficial dermis (an upper layer of the skin). Mostly these areas are quite small but in severe cases whole areas such as the face or one or more of the limbs may become swollen.

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Whistling and Roaring in Horses

The terms 'whistler' and 'roarer' are used to describe horses that make an abnormal respiratory noise during exercise. The noise is heard during inspiration (i.e., breathing in) and may be anything from a high pitched soft whistle to a harsh 'roar'.

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Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia in Cats

AIHA or IMHA is a life-threatening condition which may occur as a primary condition or secondary to another disease. Most cats with AIHA have severe anemia, their gums will be very pale, they will be listless and tire more easily, be anorexic and will have increased heart and respiration rates. Diagnosis involves CBC, biochemical profiles, urinalysis, and X-rays or ultrasound of the abdomen and chest. Treatment may involve blood transfusions and other medications over a prolonged course of time. The prognosis may be better if an underlying cause can be identified.

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Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia in Dogs

AIHA or IMHA is a life-threatening condition which may occur as a primary condition or secondary to another disease. Most dogs with AIHA have severe anemia, their gums will be very pale, they will be listless and tire more easily, be anorexic and will have increased heart and respiration rates. Diagnosis involves CBC, biochemical profiles, urinalysis, and X-rays or ultrasound of the abdomen and chest. Treatment may involve blood transfusions and other medications over a prolonged course of time. The prognosis may be better if an underlying cause can be identified.

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Distichia or Distichiasis in Dogs

Distichiae can be an irritating eye problem for many dogs. The abnormally growing extra eyelashes can cause chronic discomfort to the eye and potential vision problems. A thorough eye examination, including fluorescein staining of the cornea and an assessment of the degree of tear production in the eyes, is usually necessary to assess the extent of any accompanying corneal injury and to rule out other causes of the dog's clinical signs. Various treatment options are available in order to help dogs live a more comfortable life. The prognosis is excellent for those dogs that do not show any clinical signs associated with their distichiae. For dogs with mild clinical signs, the likelihood that the condition can be managed with conservative treatment is good.

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Histoplasmosis in Dogs

Histoplasmosis is an infection caused by histoplasma, a fungus found in moist soils and especially prevalent around the Ohio, Mississippi, Missouri, and St. Lawrence Rivers, as well as the southern Great Lakes. Fungal spores are inhaled or ingested and cause infection in many sites including the lungs, gastrointestinal tract, eyes, joints, and spleen. Clinical signs can include fever, lethargy, anorexia, weight loss, coughing or trouble breathing, diarrhea, and straining while defecating. Diagnosis includes routine bloodwork, urinalysis, X-rays, antigen testing, and cytology or histopathology. Treatment requires long term anti-fungal medication such as itraconazole. Prognosis is guarded depending on how ill the patient is. This disease is transmissible to humans, especially if they are immunocompromised.

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Spondylosis Deformans in Cats

Spondylosis deformans is a condition that affects the vertebral bones of the spine and is characterized by the presence of bony spurs or osteophytes along the edges of the bones of the spine. In cats, spondylosis deformans lesions are often found along the thoracic spine. Spondylosis deformans is a chronic condition that is associated with aging and most cats are free of symptoms. This condition is usually diagnosed from radiographs of the spine. Treatment recommendations depend on the individual cat and whether or not it is showing any clinical signs.

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Spondylosis Deformans in Dogs

Spondylosis deformans is a condition that affects the vertebral bones of the spine and is characterized by the presence of bony spurs or osteophytes along the edges of the bones of the spine. The most common places that spondylosis deformans lesions develop are along the thoracic vertebrae (chest), especially at the junction between the rib cage and the abdomen, in the lumbar spine and in the lumbosacral spine. Spondylosis deformans is a chronic condition that is associated with aging and most dogs are free of symptoms. This condition is usually diagnosed from radiographs of the spine. Treatment recommendations depend on the individual dog and whether or not it is showing any clinical signs.

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Brachycephalic Airway Syndrome in Dogs

Brachycephalic airway syndrome occurs in dogs that have anatomic abnormalities causing a more flat-faced appearance. These changes in anatomy cause restrictions in the dog's upper airways (including stenotic nares, elongated soft palate, nasopharyngeal turbinates, and hypoplastic trachea), and can eventually lead to everted laryngeal saccules and laryngeal collapse. Common signs of this condition are open mouth breathing and snoring, but can worsen, leading to exercise intolerance, coughing, gagging, or retching. Diagnosis of elongated soft palate, everted saccules and hypoplastic trachea requires deep sedation or general anesthesia. Dogs with this condition may require only corticosteroids, oxygen, and environmental management, but surgery to correct the palate, nares, and everted saccules may need to be performed. Prognosis is good to guarded depending on the severity of the disease but is greatly improved if the problem is noted and treated surgically in younger dogs.

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Chronic Bronchitis in Cats

Chronic Bronchitis is a long-term inflammatory condition that affects the pulmonary or respiratory system. This condition is irreversible and is slowly progressive.

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Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (Chronic Bronchitis) in Dogs

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or chronic bronchitis is a slowly progressing inflammatory condition of the lower airways. It most often affects small or toy breeds from middle-aged and senior dogs. The most common sign is a chronic dry cough. Exercise intolerance, collapsing, wheezing, or noisy breathing may develop as the condition worsens. Airborne irritants/allergens, chronic respiratory infections, obesity and dental disease are implicated in triggering the disease. Diagnosis can be made by ruling out other causes of cough through a minimum diagnostic database, radiographs, bronchoscopy, and cytology and culture of lung material obtained through tracheal wash or bronchoalveolar lavage. Treatment aims to minimize inducing factors including weight loss and avoidance of environmental irritants, as well as employing medications such as corticosteroids and bronchodilators. If using long-term, these medications are most often given using metered dose inhalers to manage the disease successfully.

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Valley Fever in Dogs

Valley fever is a fungal infection caused by Coccidioides immitis. In the US it is most commonly found in the southwestern states with California and Arizona being most affected. The most common method of infection is through inhalation of spores that are released by disturbance of soil such as while digging. These spores infect the lungs forming spherules. Dogs with healthy immune systems avoid serious infection by walling off the spherules; however, those that have weakened immune systems can become ill. The two main forms of disease are primary and disseminated. The primary disease occurs in the lungs causing coughing, lethargy, decreased appetite, fever, and depression. Disseminated disease occurs when the fungus migrates to different areas of the body including the bones, joints, eyes, and rarely the brain. Diagnosis includes blood tests (including titer tests) and radiographs. Treatment requires prolonged anti-fungal agents and is generally successful in respiratory or primary cases; however, patients affected by the disseminated form have a more guarded prognosis.

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Brachycephalic Airway Syndrome in Cats

Brachycephalic airway syndrome refers to a particular set of upper airway abnormalities that affect brachycephalic cats. The most common sign of the condition is mouth breathing and, in the long term, the increased effort associated with breathing can put a strain on the cat's heart. Surgery is the treatment of choice whenever the anatomical abnormalities interfere with a cat’s breathing.

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Bacterial Pneumonia and Bronchopneumonia in Dogs

Bacterial pneumonia is an inflammation of the lung, usually caused by a bacterial or viral infection, but can be caused by inhalation of an irritant. Typical signs of bacterial pneumonia include fever, difficulty breathing, lethargy, and coughing. As these can also be caused by other diseases, diagnostics include a full physical exam, blood work, and radiographs, and may also require bronchoscopy or tracheal lavage to collect samples for cytology and bacterial culture and sensitivity. Treatment includes the use of one or more antibiotics that ideally would be selected using the results of a culture. Affected dogs may also require hospitalization and supportive care including intravenous fluids. The prognosis depends on the severity of the disease and whether there are any predisposing factors.

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Bandage and Splint Care in Cats

Bandages or splints may be necessary at times if your cat has a wound or a broken bone. Bandages can be readily applied to the head, neck, chest, tail, or lower legs of a cat. Splints are usually applied below the knee on the back leg or below the midpoint of the humerus on the front leg. Home care is very important and you will need to monitor for changes closely. Your veterinarian will give you more specific directions for the length of time that your cat has to be bandaged.

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Bandage and Splint Care in Dogs

Bandages or splints may be necessary at times if your dog has a wound or a broken bone. Bandages can be applied to the head, neck, chest, tail, or lower legs of a dog. Splints are usually applied below the knee on the back leg or below the midpoint of the humerus on the front leg. Home care is very important and you will need to monitor for changes closely. Your veterinarian will give you more specific directions for the length of time that your dog has to be bandaged.

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Taurine in Cats

Taurine is a type of amino acid, which are the building blocks of all proteins. Taurine is an essential amino acid in the cat. Taurine deficiency will lead to feline taurine retinopathy, a weakening of the muscle cells in the heart, causing a condition called dilated cardiomyopathy and may cause digestive disturbances. Taurine was first recognized as a necessary component of the cat's diet in the late 1980's. Since then, all diets that are formulated for cats are supplemented with enough taurine to meet the normal cat's needs. A healthy cat that eats a high-quality cat food that is appropriate to its life stage does not require supplementation. Supplemental taurine is used as a treatment for dilated cardiomyopathy in cats. There are isolated occurrences of taurine-deficient dilated cardiomyopathy in dogs. Your veterinarian may have preferred supplement manufacturers that he or she will recommend.

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Uveitis in Cats

Uveitis is an inflammation of one or more of the structures making up the uvea. Signs of uveitis are severe pain with an intense reddening of the visible parts of the eye. Measurement of intraocular pressure is often performed to diagnose uveitis. Treatment involves reducing the pain and inflammation in the eye as well as treating the initial cause of the disease

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Anisocoria in Dogs

Anisocoria is a condition in which the pupils of the eyes are different sizes; one pupil is larger than the other. Anisocoria is a symptom of an underlying condition or disease that needs to be identified and treated. Prognosis is guarded pending the diagnosis and treatment. Blindness may occur as a result of the underlying condition.

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Anisocoria in Cats

Anisocoria is a condition in which the pupils of the cat's eyes are different sizes. Anisocoria is a symptom of an underlying condition or disease that needs to be identified and treated. Prognosis is guarded pending the diagnosis and treatment. Blindness may occur as a result of the underlying condition.

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Degenerative Joint Disease in Cats

Degenerative joint disease is arthritis caused by deterioration and degeneration of tissues lining joints. It is an under-recognized condition in cats. Treatment involves modification of the home environment, regular gentle exercise, anti-inflammatory drugs and other medications, omega fatty acids, chondroprotectants, and possibly other nutraceuticals. Maintaining your cat’s weight can help prevent degenerative joint disease.

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Heart Murmurs in Dogs

This handout discusses what a heart murmur is, how it is diagnosed, what recommended tests are advised to determine the underlying cause, and potential treatments or monitoring that should be undertaken when a murmur is detected in your dog.

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Heart Murmurs in Cats

This handout discusses what a heart murmur is, how it is detected, what recommended tests are advised to determine the underlying cause, and potential treatments or monitoring that should be undertaken when a murmur is detected in your cat.

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Glaucoma in Cats

Glaucoma is a disease of the eye in which the pressure within the eye, called intraocular pressure (IOP), is increased. Glaucoma is caused by inadequate drainage of aqueous fluid. Glaucoma is classified as primary or secondary. High intraocular pressure causes damage to occur in the retina and the optic nerve. Blindness can occur very quickly unless the increased IOP is reduced. Analgesics to control the pain and medications that decrease fluid production and promote drainage are often prescribed to treat glaucoma. The prognosis depends to a degree upon the underlying cause of the glaucoma.

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Brucellosis in Dogs

Brucellosis is a contagious bacterial infection that can cause a number of reproductive problems, including infertility and abortion in breeding dogs. Male dogs infected with brucellosis develop epididymitis, an infection of the testicle. Female dogs infected with brucellosis develop an infection of the uterus. The infection is usually diagnosed by a blood test (rapid slide agglutination test). Treatment with antibiotics is not significantly effective and infected dogs should be removed from the breeding population. In the United States, brucellosis is a reportable disease.

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Horner's Syndrome in Cats

Horner's syndrome is a common neurological disorder of the eye and facial muscles and can occur suddenly. Dysfunction of the sympathetic nerves of the eyes and surrounding facial muscles causes Horner’s syndrome and may be due to an injury such as a bite wound or blunt trauma, a tumor, intervertebral disc disease, or middle or inner ear disease. If an underlying cause can be identified, treatments will target that; however, many cases will spontaneously recover after some time.

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Blepharitis in Dogs

Blepharitis (inflammation of the eyelid) can affect one or both eyes. The affected eyelid will usually be red, swollen, and itchy. Any condition that can cause irritation of the eyelids can lead to blepharitis. The numerous potential causes of this condition, along with the clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis are outlined in this handout.

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Blepharitis in Cats

Blepharitis (inflammation of the eyelid) can affect one or both eyes. The affected eyelid will usually be red, swollen, and itchy. Any condition that can cause irritation of the eyelids can lead to blepharitis. The numerous potential causes of this condition, along with the clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis are outlined in this handout.

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Luxating Patella in Cats

The patella connects the femur and the tibia and is normally located in a groove called the trochlear groove found at the end of the femur. A luxating patella is a kneecap that 'pops out' or moves out of its normal location. The patella will luxate or slip out of the groove during extension of the leg if the trochlear groove is too shallow, if the cat is bow-legged or cow-hocked, or if the point of attachment on the tibia is off-center. There are 4 grades of patellar luxation, and a higher grade means that the condition is more severe. Your veterinarian will diagnose a luxating patella by feeling the displaced kneecap during palpation of the leg. A luxating patella can be corrected surgically, especially if the patella luxates frequently. If your veterinarian performs surgery before arthritis or other knee injury occurs, the prognosis is excellent.

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Feline Upper Respiratory Infection

Feline upper respiratory infection (URI) is one term for a respiratory infection caused by one or more viral or bacterial agents. Synonyms for this condition include feline infectious respiratory disease and feline upper respiratory disease complex (URD).

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Herpesvirus Infection in Cats (Feline Viral Rhinotracheitis)

Feline viral rhinotracheitis (FVR) is an infectious disease caused by feline herpesvirus type-1. It is a major cause of upper respiratory disease in cats and is the most common cause of conjunctivitis. The typical symptoms of FVR involve the nose, throat, and eyes, and include sneezing, nasal congestion, conjunctivitis, excessive blinking, squinting, and discharges from the eyes and nose that range from clear and watery to thick and purulent (containing yellow/green pus). Treatment consists of supportive care, hydration of the environment, and control of secondary bacterial infections with antibiotics and antibiotic eye medications. An effective vaccine exists and is recommended for all cats.

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Coat and Skin Appearance in the Healthy Dog

The general condition of your dog's skin and coat are good indicators of its health. A healthy coat should be shiny and smooth, not brittle or coarse, and healthy skin should be supple and clear, not greasy, flaky or bumpy. Selective breeding has led to the development of dogs with a myriad of different coat characteristics requiring varying grooming needs. In order to maintain the skin and hair in a healthy state, your dog also requires a properly balanced diet.

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Coat and Skin Appearance in the Healthy Cat

The general condition of your cat's skin and coat are good indicators of her health. A healthy coat should be shiny and smooth, not brittle or coarse, and healthy skin should be supple and clear, not greasy, flaky, or bumpy. Selective breeding has led to the development of cats with a myriad of different coat characteristics requiring varying grooming needs. In order to maintain the skin and hair in a healthy state, your cat also requires a properly balanced diet.

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Xylitol Poisoning in Dogs

Xylitol is a naturally occurring substance that is widely used as a sugar substitute. Chemically, it is a sugar alcohol, and found naturally in berries, plums, corn, oats, mushrooms, lettuce, trees, and some other fruits.

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Grape, Raisin, and Currant Poisoning in Dogs

While a favorite and healthy snack for people, grapes, raisins and currants can cause kidney failure in dogs. Raisins can commonly be found in combination with other foods, potentially increasing the risk of exposure as compared with grapes and currants.  The toxicity concern is the same. 

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Bite Wounds in Dogs

Bite wounds are a common injury veterinarians see. If left alone, wounds have the potential to become more complicated, as they are likely infected and delaying treatment only makes it worse. Antibiotics, pain medications, and stitches may all be involved in the post-bite wound care.

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Urate Bladder Stones in Dogs

Urate bladder stones are most commonly the result of a genetic abnormality seen in breeds such as Dalmatians. Other causes of urate bladder stones include liver diseases such as portosystemic shunts. The most common signs that a dog has bladder stones are hematuria and dysuria. There are two primary treatment strategies for treating urate bladder stones in dogs: non-surgical removal by urohydropropulsion, and surgical removal. Dogs that have experienced urate bladder stones will often be fed a therapeutic diet for life. Dogs with liver disease will need to be treated appropriately prior to addressing urate bladder stone management.

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Struvite Bladder Stones in Dogs

One of the more common bladder stones found in dogs is composed of magnesium ammonium phosphate hexahydrate (also known as struvite stones). Struvite bladder stones usually form as a complication of a bladder infection caused by bacteria, and if the urine becomes exceptionally concentrated and acidic. The most common signs that a dog has bladder stones are hematuria and dysuria. There are three primary treatment strategies for struvite bladder stones: 1) feeding a special diet to dissolve the stone(s), 2) non-surgical removal by urohydropropulsion and 3) surgical removal. Dogs that have experienced struvite bladder stones will often be fed a therapeutic diet for life.

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Cystine Bladder Stones in Dogs

Cystine bladder stones appear to be the result of a genetic abnormality that prevents a dog from reabsorbing cystine from the kidneys. While bladder stones in general are somewhat common in dogs, cystine bladder stones are rare. Your veterinarian may be able to palpate the stones or may need to perform imaging studies such as a bladder ultrasound or a contrast radiographic study. There are two primary treatment strategies for treating cystine bladder stones in dogs: urohydropropulsion or surgical removal. Dogs that have developed cystine bladder stones in the past will often be fed a therapeutic diet for life. Unfortunately, cystine stones have a high rate of recurrence, despite careful attention to diet and lifestyle.

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Calcium Oxalate Bladder Stones in Dogs

One of the more common uroliths in the dog is composed of calcium oxalate crystals. Current research indicates that urine high in calcium, citrates, or oxalates and is acidic predisposes a pet to developing calcium oxalate urinary crystals and stones. The most common signs that a dog has bladder stones are hematuria and dysuria. The only way to be sure that a bladder stone is made of calcium oxalate is to have the stone analyzed at a veterinary referral laboratory. Unfortunately, calcium oxalate stones have a somewhat high rate of recurrence, despite careful attention to diet and lifestyle.

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Wobbly Hedgehog Syndrome

Wobbly Hedgehog Syndrome (WHS) is a progressive degenerative neurological disease of African and European hedgehogs sometimes referred to as progressive paresis/paralysis. It has been noted with increasing frequency since the mid 1990's. It slowly degrades the animal's muscle control perhaps similar to that of MS in humans.

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Eclampsia in Cats

Eclampsia is essentially hypocalcemia in a cat who has recently given birth. It can quickly progress from weakness to tremors, seizures, or paralysis. Treatment involves immediate intravenous injections of calcium and other drugs. Recovery from eclampsia is usually rapid and complete if treated early. Fortunately, it is uncommon in cats.

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Eclampsia in Dogs

Eclampsia is hypocalcemia in a dog who has recently given birth. Breeds such as Chihuahuas, Pomeranians, Toy Poodles, Miniature Pinscher, Shih Tzu, and other small breeds are at an increased risk. Eclampsia is considered an emergency and immediate medical attention should be sought. It can quickly progress from weakness to tremors, seizures, or paralysis. Treatment involves immediate intravenous injections of calcium and other drugs. Recovery from eclampsia is usually rapid and complete if treated early.

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Burr Tongue in Dogs

Burr tongue is the common name for burdock tongue (also called granular stomatitis or granulomatous glossitis) caused by ingestion of the burrs from the burdock plant. Burr tongue is most commonly seen in long-haired dogs when they accidentally traumatize their tongue and mouth on the burrs during grooming. The hooked scales of the burrs become embedded in the tongue and gums and cause an intense foreign body reaction. Affected dogs often have small red bumps on the tip and edges of their tongue, front of the lips and gums, and occasionally the base of the nose. Based on the severity of the condition, treatment ranges from letting the injuries heal on their own to administering antibiotics and pain medications, to surgical intervention.

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Treatment Instructions for Asthma and Bronchitis in Cats

Asthma is a chronic disease that causes narrowing and swelling of the airways in the lungs. Most cats with asthma will experience coughing, difficulty breathing, open-mouth panting, and other signs of respiratory distress. Death may occur in severe cases that remain untreated. It is important to acclimatize the cat to the inhaler for inhalant therapy to be effective.

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Tympanic Membrane Rupture and Middle Ear Infection in Dogs

Damage to the ear drum and middle ear infections can cause a variety of signs affecting the skin and nervous system and can cause pain. A thorough ear examination will be performed and may require sedation or anesthesia. Your veterinarian may need to thoroughly flush the ear and may prescribe oral antibiotics and topical antibiotics to be applied in your dog’s ears. Treatment can be up to two months long with frequent recheck examinations. The prognosis is variable depending on the underlying cause.

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Vestibular Disease in Cats

Vestibular disease in cats is a condition in which a cat suddenly develops incoordination, falling or circling to one side, involuntary darting of the eyes back and forth (nystagmus), a head tilt, and often nausea or vomiting. These clinical signs usually appear suddenly, many times in less than an hour. Many conditions can cause the disease and the vast majority of cases are diagnosed as idiopathic.

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Hydrocephalus in Toy Breed Puppies

Hydrocephalus is an excess of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that has leaked inside the skull, leading to brain swelling. There are two main types of hydrocephalus in dogs: congenital and acquired. Small, miniature, and toy breeds seem to be more affected. In the acute or early phases of hydrocephalus, treatment is directed toward reducing CSF production and inflammation. For acquired hydrocephalus, therapy is focused on treating the underlying cause and may range from medications to surgery to radiation therapy. Your veterinarian will discuss your pet’s prognosis and treatment options based on its individual condition.

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How to Recognize Pain in Aging Cats

Cats are very good at hiding signs of pain, so cat owners need to be very observant to recognize behavior changes that indicate their cat needs help. Some of the most common behavior changes are associated with grooming and litter box habits. This handout describes these and other changes to watch for, as well as advice on how to support your aging cat.

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How to Recognize Pain in Aging Dogs

Pain can be difficult to detect in older dogs. It is important for dog owners to recognize subtle signs of pain in their dog, such as slowing down on walks, unwillingness to play, reluctance to sit or stand, limping or weight shifting, and sensitivity to touch on being picked up. If any of these behaviors are observed, your dog should be evaluated by your veterinarian and a pain management plan devised.

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Helping Your Dog with Osteoarthritis

Twenty percent of all dogs (regardless of age) are affected by osteoarthritis, making it the most common chronic disease they face. It is important to develop a plan with your veterinarian to help your dog maintain a good quality of life despite his arthritis. Arthritis management plans include weight loss, exercise, medications, diet, supplements, and modification of the home environment to ease your dog’s daily activities.

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Helping Your Cat with Osteoarthritis

It is estimated that 90% of cats over age 10 are affected by osteoarthritis, making it the most common chronic disease cats face. It is important to develop a plan with your veterinarian to help your cat maintain a good quality of life despite her arthritis. Arthritis management plans include weight loss, exercise, medications, diet, supplements, and modification of the home environment to ease your cat’s daily activities.

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Joint Support and Disease-Modifying Osteoarthritis Drugs (DMOADs) in Dogs

This handout outlines the use of disease-modifying osteoarthritis drugs (DMOADs) in dogs, specifically the use of polysulfated glycosaminoglycans (PSGAGs). The rationale for their use, and their dosing regimen are explained.

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Joint Support and Disease-Modifying Osteoarthritis Drugs (DMOADs) in Cats

This handout outlines the use of disease-modifying osteoarthritis drugs (DMOADs) in cats, specifically the use of polysulfated glycosaminoglycans (PSGAGs). The rationale for their use, potential side effects, and treatment expectations are explained.

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Nutraceuticals for Joint Support in Cats with Osteoarthritis

A nutraceutical is a food or food product that reportedly provides health and/or medical benefits. In addition to diet modifications, exercise, weight loss, and medications, joint support nutraceuticals are also helpful in an osteoarthritis management program. Nutraceuticals are not subjected to the same testing and regulation as pharmaceuticals. Your veterinarian can advise you on products that have been evaluated and have yielded positive effects.

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Nutraceuticals for Joint Support in Dogs with Osteoarthritis

A nutraceutical is a food or food product that reportedly provides health and medical benefits. Specific nutraceuticals are commonly used in the management of osteoarthritis in dogs. Because nutraceuticals are not subjected to the same testing and regulation as pharmaceuticals, it is always best to consult your veterinarian before giving any to your dog.

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Canine Influenza: The Dog Flu

Canine influenza virus (CIV) is primarily the result of two influenza strains: H3N8 from an equine origin and H3N2 from an avian origin. Both of these strains were previously known to infect species other than dogs, but are now able to infect and spread among dogs. The canine influenza virus is easy to transmit.

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Polycythemia Vera

Polycythemia vera is a rare disease of dogs and cats in which too many red blood cells are produced by the bone marrow. Dogs and cats with polycythemia vera may have a red blood cell population of 65% to 75% of the total blood volume. The blood becomes very thick and has difficulty moving through the small blood vessels in the body and your pet may feel tired, sluggish, and weak. Polycythemia can be a potentially fatal disease, but fortunately if discovered early enough, treatment may be possible. If left untreated, polycythemia vera can affect the heart. Treatment is aimed at reducing red blood cell numbers by removing some of the blood and administering medication to slow down production of RBCs in the bone marrow.

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Gastrointestinal Stasis in Rabbits

Rabbits that are not eating may have developed gastrointestinal (GI) stasis. GI stasis is typically caused by a physiologic change in bacteria. Rabbits may stop eating because they are sick with other diseases, such as dental problems or kidney disease, or when they are stressed, overheated, painful from injuries or arthritis, or uncomfortable from other gastrointestinal problems such as bacterial, viral, or parasitic intestinal infections. Some rabbits get GI upset when they are eating too much carbohydrate and not enough fiber. Supportive care treatment either in or out of the hospital will be prescribed for a rabbit with GI stasis. Prevent GI stasis by feeding your rabbit a high-fiber, hay-based diet with supplemental vegetables, a small amount of pellets and fruit. Have your rabbit checked regularly by a veterinarian who can monitor for the occurrence of other underlying diseases that may contribute to the development of GI stasis.

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Retained Testicle (Cryptorchidism) in Cats

Cryptorchidism (retained testicles) is a fairly uncommon disease that can be passed on to future litters. Clinical signs are uncommon unless complications develop. Spermatic cord torsion are two complications that can occur with cryptorchidism. Neutering easily corrects the problem.

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Euthanasia Decisions and Your Cat

Open and honest communication with your veterinarian and veterinary healthcare team throughout your cat's life lays the foundation for effective communication when that cat's life begins drawing to a close. Discussion with your veterinarian will clarify any specific medical implications of your cat's disease that can serve as benchmarks to suggest that euthanasia should be considered. Most often, euthanasia is provided at the veterinary practice or in your home. The veterinary healthcare team will be an important partner as you negotiate the difficult days and decisions leading up to your cat's peaceful passing.

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Constipation in Dogs

Constipation is infrequent or difficult passage of stool or feces and is typically a temporary condition. Though there are many causes of constipation in dogs, most cases are caused by ingestion of irritating or indigestible substances. Constipation is usually diagnosed through a physical examination and medical history. A rectal exam to rule out rectal strictures, tumors, foreign bodies, or other abnormalities may be done. Abdominal radiographs, blood tests, and urinalysis are valuable for a full diagnosis and development of a treatment plan. Biopsies may also be recommended if a rectal mass or stricture is suspected. Most cases of constipation are relatively easy to treat through the use of manual removal, enemas, and medications. The prognosis for constipation is determined by the exact cause.

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Living with a Deaf Dog

Dogs can suffer from hearing loss due to increasing age, chronic ear infections, or may be born with a defect. Deafness in dogs can present some challenges but overall, they can have a fairly healthy, normal life. Training is still possible by making some modifications and incorporating hand signals into the training regime. It is important to take their deafness into account when considering their safety and ensure that they are never off leash on or near a street.

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Living with a Deaf Cat

Cats can suffer from hearing loss due to increasing age, chronic ear infections, or may be born with a defect. Deafness in cats can present some challenges but overall, they can have a fairly healthy, normal life. It is possible to teach your cat household routines by incorporating hand signals and body language into your communication with your cat. It is important to take their deafness into account when considering their safety.

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Pets with Disabilities

Pets may have visible or hidden disability that may require some adjustments to their care or lifestyle to maximize their quality of life. Many of these pets can have a fairly normal life and be just as loving as any other pet. 

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Mothball Poisoning in Dogs

Mothballs are solid pesticides that slowly release a gas vapor to kill and repel moths, their larvae, and other insects from stored clothing and fabric. Mothballs are sometimes also used to repel snakes, mice, and other animals, although this use is not recommended and can be harmful to pets, children, and the environment.

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Cranial Cruciate Ligament Repair: Tibial Plateau Leveling Osteotomy and Tibial Tuberosity Advancement

One of the most common injuries to the knee of dogs is tearing of the cranial cruciate ligament (CCL). This ligament is similar to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in humans. There are actually two cruciate ligaments inside the knee: the cranial cruciate ligament and caudal cruciate ligament. They are called cruciate because they cross over each other inside the middle of the knee.

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Anorexia in Dogs

A dog that is not wanting to eat or is not eating, is a dog who has a potentially life-threatening medical condition. Many conditions can lead to the inability of your dog to eat or for your dog to lose his appetite completely. It is important to find the underlying cause so that an appropriate treatment plan can be created. Appetite stimulants may be prescribed and in some cases a feeding tube may be placed by your veterinarian. Decreased food intake or any change in eating habits warrants investigation by your veterinarian.

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Anorexia in Cats

A cat that is not wanting to eat or is not eating, is a cat who has a potentially life-threatening medical condition. Many conditions can lead to the inability of your cat to eat or for your cat to lose her appetite completely. It is important to find the underlying cause so that an appropriate treatment plan can be created. Appetite stimulants may be prescribed and in some cases a feeding tube may be placed by your veterinarian. Decreased food intake or any change in eating habits warrants investigation by your veterinarian.

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Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca (KCS) or Dry Eye in Cats

Keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS) is a condition that is also commonly referred to as dry eye. It is a common eye condition resulting from inadequate production of the aqueous portion of the tear film by the lacrimal gland or the third eyelid gland. Any condition that impairs the ability to produce adequate amounts of tear film can result in dry eye. Most cats with KCS have painful, red, and irritated eyes leading to squinting. The treatment of dry eye is to stimulate tear production and to replace tear film. The prognosis for cats diagnosed with KCS has never been better.

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Inner Ear Infection (Otitis Interna) in Dogs

Otitis interna can cause some significant signs in your dog, including reluctance to eat, head tilt, alteration in balance, and reduced hearing on the affected side. If the specific cause can be identified, such as bacterial or fungal infection, treatment could involve long-term medications. Less commonly, surgery may be needed. Many dogs will respond to treatment and recover well.

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Inner Ear Infection (Otitis Interna) in Cats

Otitis interna can cause some significant signs in your cat, including drooling from the side of the mouth, difficulty eating, inability to blink, and drooping eyelids, lips, and nostril on the affected side. If the specific cause can be identified, such as bacterial or fungal infection, treatment could involve long-term medications. Less commonly, surgery may be needed. Many cats will respond to treatment and recover well.

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Nutrition for Cats with Chronic Kidney Disease

Chronic kidney disease is frequently diagnosed in aging cats. Nutrition plays an important role in managing CKD in cats. Commercial diets for cats with CKD are developed support kidney function while maintaining body condition. A kidney support diet contains less protein, sodium, and phosphorus and increased omega-3 fatty acids. Your veterinarian will help you choose an appropriate formulation for your cat which will slow the progression of this disease, contributing to both life expectancy and quality of life.

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Acute Caudal Myopathy (Limber Tail)

Acute caudal myopathy results from overuse of the tail, causing a strain or sprain of the muscle groups used for tail wagging. Possible causes of limber tail include hard/vigorous play within the previous 24 hours, and prolonged swimming or hunting, often with exposure to cold water or weather. The tail may droop limply between your dog's rear legs, or it may stick straight out behind him for a short distance before drooping. This can be a painful condition for your dog. Uncomplicated acute caudal myopathy is treated with rest and anti-inflammatory medication, and typically resolves within a few days.

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Tympanic Membrane Rupture and Middle Ear Infection in Cats

Damage to the ear drum and middle ear infections can cause a variety of signs affecting the skin and nervous system and can cause pain. A thorough ear examination will be performed and may require sedation or anesthesia. Your veterinarian may need to thoroughly flush the ear and may prescribe oral antibiotics and topical antibiotics to be applied in your cat’s ears. Treatment can be up to two months long with frequent recheck examinations. The prognosis is variable depending on the underlying cause.

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Megaesophagus

Megaesophagus is a disorder in which the esophagus dilates and loses motility. When esophageal motility is decreased or absent, food and liquid accumulate in the esophagus and have difficulty getting into the stomach. There are two types of megaesophagus: congenital and acquired. Regurgitation is the most common sign of megaesophagus. Dilation of the esophagus can often be diagnosed by radiographs. Overall treatment is focused on managing the symptoms by preventing regurgitation and allowing food to move through the gastrointestinal tract in order to be digested.

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Cerebellar Hypoplasia in Cats

Cerebellar hypoplasia is a developmental condition in which the cerebellum of the brain fails to develop properly. It most commonly occurs when a pregnant cat becomes infected with feline panleukopenia virus and passes the infection to her unborn kittens. Since the cerebellum is responsible for purposeful movement and coordination, the symptoms of this condition may not become apparent until the kitten starts to try to stand or walk on its own. There is no treatment; however, kittens with cerebellar hypoplasia are not infectious to other kittens or cats, are not in any pain, and will learn to adapt to their disability over time.

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Nutritional Concerns for Dogs with Bladder Stones

Bladder stones can be a significant problem for dogs and finding out what type of stone is present will help determine if it can be dissolved, as well as make a plan to prevent recurrence. Bladder stones set the stage for chronic urinary tract infection, and some bladder stones (struvites) grow more quickly if the dog already has a urinary tract infection. Diet selection play a large role in this and it is important to follow veterinarian recommended nutrient profiles to prevent recurrence.

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Nutrition for Dogs with Colitis

Colitis is a fairly common problem in dogs manifesting as diarrhea. Dealing with colitis may boil down to working with your veterinarian to find a nutrient profile that allows your dog's gastrointestinal system to function as normally as possible. A nutrient profile which contains a high quality, high digestibility protein, low to moderate fat content, and high digestibility carbohydrates. Fiber may also play a role to benefit the colon of dogs with chronic colitis. Work with your veterinarian to assess your dog's clinical and nutritional history, create a nutritional plan, and then evaluate the success of the plan.

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Progressive Retinal Atrophy in Dogs

Progressive retinal atrophy (PRA), is a group of degenerative diseases that affect photoreceptor cells in the eyes. With this disease, the cells deteriorate over time, eventually leading to blindness in the affected dog. There are two main forms of PRA recognized in dogs, an early onset, inherited from called retinal dysplasia and a late onset form. PRA is an inherited disease that occurs in many breeds of dogs. When a dog develops PRA, it, and its parents and siblings, should be removed from breeding programs. As PRA progresses, your dog’s vision gradually worsens until he becomes completely blind. There is currently no effective treatment available for PRA. For the average family pet, blindness is not as significant as it would be in a human. and a blind dog will rely more on its other senses.

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Patent Ductus Arteriosus in Dogs

The ductus arteriosus is an arterial shunt between the aorta and the pulmonary artery. Patent ductus arteriosus is a heart defect that occurs when the ductus arteriosus fails to close down at birth. If the ductus arteriosus fails to close properly after birth, the difference in pressure between the pulmonary artery and the aorta means that the blood will take the path of least resistance and flow from the aorta through the patent ductus arteriosus into the pulmonary artery, needlessly recirculating this oxygenated blood back to the lungs. The larger the PDA is, the more blood will be shunted through it, causing more significant signs. A PDA will usually be diagnosed when your veterinarian hears a continuous heart murmur during a routine physical examination of your puppy. The goal of treatment for a forward flowing PDA is to stop the blood flowing through the shunt. Your veterinarian will refer you to a veterinary cardiovascular surgeon, who will determine the optimal treatment for your dog. Provided that the condition is treated before heart failure develops, the success rate associated with surgical closure is very high and the prognosis for a normal life after surgery is excellent.+

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Diabetic Ketoacidosis in Dogs

Diabetic ketoacidosis is a life-threatening condition that results from inadequate insulin or interference of insulin action on the body preventing glucose regulation. This causes a buildup of ketone bodies that, at a high enough level, will cause a metabolic derangement resulting in inability to retain water, weakness, vomiting and weight loss, among other signs. Treatment usually requires intensive hospitalized care including IV fluids, potassium supplementation, short acting insulin injections, and regular monitoring of glucose and electrolytes. In dogs already diagnosed with diabetes, ketoacidosis can often be prevented with regular glucose monitoring performed at home.

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Masticatory Myositis in Dogs

Masticatory muscle myositis (MMM) is an immune system disorder in which the dog's immune system identifies the dog's own muscle tissue as foreign and attacks it.

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Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) in Dogs

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an immune-mediated disease in which a dog's immune system begins to attack her own tissues.

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Clostridial Overgrowth and Enterotoxicosis in Dogs

Clostridial enterotoxicosis is a complex and poorly understood syndrome characterized by diarrhea that is associated with the bacteria Clostridium perfringens (CP). It is associated with either acute or chronic diarrhea. Clostridial enterotoxicosis is not caused by the bacteria directly, but rather by a toxin produced by the bacteria. Most cases of intestinal bacterial overgrowth are treated on an outpatient basis using antibiotics, nutrition, and probiotics.

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Myasthenia Gravis in Dogs

Myasthenia gravis is a disease in which there is a malfunction in the transmission of signals between the nerves and muscles. Dogs with myasthenia gravis exhibit extreme weakness and excessive fatigue. There are two forms: inherited and acquired, and treatment is with a class of medication that inhibits a nervous system enzyme called acetylcholinesterase. Anti-acetylcholinesterase medication and immunosuppressive therapy will likely be required for the life of the dog.

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Zinc-Responsive Dermatosis in Dogs

Zinc-responsive dermatosis in dogs is a skin condition that results from zinc deficiency in the body. The deficiency can be due to an inability to adequately absorb zinc from the diet (most commonly seen in arctic breeds), zinc binders in dietary supplements, excess calcium (juvenile large breeds) or less commonly, an inadequate amount of zinc in the diet. Clinical signs include crusts and scaling around the eyes, mouth, scrotum and muco-cutaneous junctions. The haircoat can also, be dry and dull. Lethargy, inappetence, and lymphadenopathy may also occur. Diagnosis includes a history and physical exam and a skin biopsy. Treatment may include zinc supplementation, dietary change and ensuring a dog isn’t receiving any supplements that will interfere with zinc absorption.

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First Aid for Hot Spots in Dogs

Hot spots are inflamed and often painful lesions that your dog may develop for a variety of reasons. Treatment is relatively simple and may include the use of topical or oral steroids, antihistamines, bandaging the area, and using an E-collar to prevent further licking or chewing. If hot spots recur, it is important to determine the underlying cause. Seasonal grooming, regular brushing, and bathing can help prevent hot spots from developing.

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Abscesses in Dogs

Abscesses are firm or compressible, often painful swellings that contain pus. They can develop in many areas of the body including around tooth roots, anal glands, under the skin, or in the liver. Abscesses are caused by the introduction of bacteria through wounds, injuries, or bloodborne in the case of an internal organ abscess. Any area of the body that becomes infected can eventually cause an abscess to form such as anal gland abscess, bite wound abscess, prostatic abscess, or brain abscess from inner ear or sinus infection. Treatment depends on severity and location and usually involves removal of the pus either through drainage or surgical removal, the use of antibiotics based on the type of bacteria and location of the abscess, and pain control medications. Monitoring after initiating treatment includes watching the site for additional drainage if the abscess was superficial or monitoring the pet for improvement of clinical signs. Delayed treatment of abscesses can lead to chronic draining tracts or worse.

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Amyloidosis in Dogs

Amyloidosis occurs when amyloid proteins are deposited outside of cells in various tissues and organs, causing tissue and organ dysfunction. It is uncommon in dogs, except in Beagles, Chinese Shar Peis, Collies, Treeing Walker Hounds, and English Foxhounds. Signs depend on the organs involved, but kidney involvement is most common. If kidneys are involved signs include mouth ulcers, weight loss, vomiting, and dehydration. For dogs with liver involvement, signs include weakness, pale gum color, distended abdomen, rapid heart rate, rapid breathing, abdominal pain, and collapse. There is no specific medication for the treatment of amyloidosis in dogs, with treatment focusing on kidney support. Shar Peis may be treated with colchicine to reduce the effects of amyloid deposition.

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Ataxia in Dogs

The word ataxia means incoordination within the nervous system. There are several different forms of ataxia, depending upon where in the nervous system the abnormality occurs. The most common sign of ataxia, regardless of the cause, is an abnormal gait in which the dog is very unsteady on his feet. Treatment of ataxia will be influenced by the root cause. Pain management, supportive care, and creating a safe environment (e.g., preventing access to stairs) are cornerstones of ataxia treatment.

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Atrioventricular Valve Dysplasia in Dogs

Atrioventricular (AV) valve dysplasia describes a developmental malformation of the mitral or tricuspid valve. Bull Terriers, Newfoundlands, Great Danes, Golden Retrievers, Mastiffs, Rottweilers and Dalmatians are recognized to be susceptible to develop mitral valve dysplasia. Labrador Retrievers, German Shepherd Dogs, Weimaraners, Irish Setters, Dogue de Bordeaux, Great Pyrenees, and Old English Sheepdogs are recognized as susceptible to tricuspid valve dysplasia. Exercise intolerance, accumulation of fluid in the abdomen, weight loss, and stunted growth may be seen. Difficulty breathing or collapse may occur if congestive heart failure develops. Treatment of AV valve dysplasia is focused on managing signs of congestive heart failure, generally using medications. Activity may need to be restricted based on your dog’s exercise tolerance and nutritional modification may be recommended.

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Atrial Fibrillation in Dogs

Atrial fibrillation describes very rapid contractions or twitching of the heart muscle, specifically in the atria. Most of the time, atrial fibrillation in dogs occurs secondary to heart disease. In some large breed dogs, atrial fibrillation occurs as a primary heart problem. Most dogs who develop atrial fibrillation have underlying heart disease, so the signs that are observed are related to that disease and may include exercise intolerance, cough, or difficulty breathing. Treatment varies depending on whether the dog has primary or secondary atrial fibrillation. Your dog will need to be monitored on a regular basis.

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Coonhound Paralysis

Coonhound paralysis describes a sudden inflammation of multiple nerve roots and peripheral nerves in dogs, and occasionally cats. It can be caused by an immune reaction to raccoon saliva. However, it can also occur in dogs who have not encountered a raccoon. In this case it is called “acute idiopathic polyradiculoneuritis” and its cause is often unknown. Dogs with coonhound paralysis start out with a stiff-legged gait that rapidly progresses to paralysis of all four legs. Severely affected dogs may need to be treated in a hospital setting but most dogs are treated at home once their diagnosis is confirmed and they are stable. The majority of dogs recover fully from coonhound paralysis.

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Aortic Stenosis in Dogs

Aortic stenosis is a heart disease that is present at birth. Dogs affected with aortic stenosis have a narrowing at the aortic valve of the heart. This narrowing forces the heart to work abnormally hard to force blood through the narrowed valve. The clinical signs of aortic stenosis vary depending on how severe the stenosis is; some dogs remain asymptomatic throughout their life, while other dogs begin showing clinical signs at an early age and can experience sudden death. The treatment of aortic stenosis depends upon the severity of the condition.

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Arthritis in Cats

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a complex condition involving inflammation and degeneration of one or more joints. Cats with OA experience pain and inflammation in various joints that interfere with the activities of daily living.

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Pyelonephritis (Bacterial Infection of the Kidney) in Dogs

Pyelonephritis is an upper urinary tract infection. Many dogs have no clinical signs when they have pyelonephritis, although they may have signs of lower urinary tract disease. Pyelonephritis is usually caused by a bacterial infection that moves up the urinary tract from the bladder to the kidneys. There are several developmental, medical, and procedural conditions that increase the risk for pyelonephritis. Antibiotics are used and to treat pyelonephritis and are chosen based on testing the urine for bacteria and antibiotic sensitivity. Overall, dogs with sudden pyelonephritis do well and return to normal health unless they also have kidney stones, chronic kidney disease, urinary tract obstruction, or cancer in the urinary tract.

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Systemic Hypertension (High Blood Pressure) in Dogs

Systemic hypertension describes high blood pressure throughout the entire body. Hypertension in dogs is often due to an underlying disease (secondary hypertension). When there is no underlying disease, it is called primary hypertension. There are several signs of hypertension including sudden blindness, bleeding inside the globe of the eye, persistently dilated pupils, head tilt, seizures, disorientation, ataxia, circling, weakness or partial paralysis, nystagmus, increased drinking and urinating with the progression of chronic kidney disease, hematuria, and epistaxis. The treatment of dogs with hypertension depends upon the underlying cause. Medications commonly used to manage hypertension in dogs include angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists (ARBs), beta blockers, diuretics, and calcium channel blockers. The course of hypertension in dogs depends on the underlying cause.

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Aortic Thromboembolism in Dogs

An aortic thromboembolism results when a blood clot is dislodged and travels through the aorta, becoming lodged in a distant location. This causes severely reduced blood flow to the tissues receiving blood from that particular part of the aorta, leading to decreased oxygen in the tissues. Aortic thromboembolism is a rare occurrence in dogs and can be associated with can be associated with endocarditis, cancer, sepsis, hyperadrenocorticism, and with increased protein-loss through diseased kidneys. Sudden paralysis and pain, usually in the rear legs, are the most common clinical signs of aortic thromboembolism, although weakness and lameness may be seen. Initially, dogs may need to be treated as inpatients. Drugs to prevent platelets from clumping together will be prescribed. The expected course of this disorder is days to weeks for full recovery of function to the legs, but the prognosis in general is very poor.

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Pulmonary Thromboembolism (Blood Clots in the Lungs) in Dogs

Pulmonary thromboembolism describes a condition when a blood clot lodges in one of the pulmonary arteries, blocking blood flow into the portion of the lung served by that artery. The signs of pulmonary thromboembolism include very sudden difficulty breathing, rapid breathing, decreased appetite, fainting, coughing, spitting up blood, weakness, exercise intolerance, and the inability to get comfortable. There are many important considerations and potential causes of pulmonary thromboembolism in dogs. Many dogs with thromboembolism are first treated as inpatients until the oxygen levels in their blood returns to normal. Once the dog returns home, it is important to restrict activity. There are some medications available for treating this disorder in dogs. The prognosis for dogs with pulmonary thromboembolism is generally guarded to poor, and it depends upon resolution of the underlying cause.

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Brain Injury in Dogs

Brain injuries are devastating and, unfortunately, often fatal. The typical signs of brain injury in a dog include altered consciousness that may signal bleeding in the skull, decreased blood flow to the brain, or fluid causing swelling within the brain itself. There are many potential causes of brain injury and treatment will always be determined by the underlying problem that led to the injury.

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Brain Tumors in Dogs

Brain tumors are generally classified as either primary or secondary. Several studies suggest that the prognosis for a dog with a primary brain tumor may be improved significantly by surgical removal of the tumor, radiation therapy, and/or chemotherapy.

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Cervical Intervertebral Disc Disease in Dogs

The intervertebral discs allow movement in the spine and act as shock absorbers between the vertebrae. If the disc degenerates or is damaged in some way, the disc may bulge and put pressure on the spinal cord and/or the roots of the spinal nerves that come off the sides of the spinal cord. This pressure can cause symptoms ranging from severe pain to weakness to paralysis. There are several breeds that experience a higher frequency of the condition. The severity of a dog’s clinical signs depends upon several factors. Conservative management with pain relievers and anti-inflammatory medication is recommended with a gradual onset of clinical signs or when clinical signs are limited to pain and/or a mildly wobbly gait. Surgery is recommended when there are repeated episodes of neck pain, when neck pain is severe, when there are severe nervous system deficits, or when the dog has not responded to conservative treatment.

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Ulcerative Keratitis in Dogs

Ulcerative keratitis is a kind of inflammation that occurs in the cornea of the eye. Some breeds seem to develop them more commonly, particularly breeds with short muzzles and prominent eyes like Chinese Pugs, Boston Terriers, etc. The signs of ulcerative keratitis depend somewhat on the cause and how long the condition has been present. There are many potential causes of ulcerative keratitis, including trauma, infection, and abnormal tear production. Antibiotic ointment or drops will be prescribed, and it is important to prevent additional trauma to the cornea. Superficial corneal ulcers typically heal within 5 to 7 days.

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Cyanosis in Dogs

Cyanosis is defined as a bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes of the body caused by inadequate oxygen levels. Several different conditions involving the cardiovascular/circulatory system and/or the respiratory system that can lead to cyanosis, including congenital defects, degeneration of heart valves or heart muscle, blood clots in the lungs, pulmonary hypertension, pneumonia, asthma, lung flukes, smoke inhalation, or muscle damage to the diaphragm. Cyanosis is an emergency, and the root cause may be life-threatening and may or may not be reversible. Once back home, homecare instructions must be followed carefully.

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Septic Arthritis in Dogs

Septic arthritis occurs when bacteria or another infectious agent is introduced into one (or more) joints, leading to painful inflammation. The signs of septic arthritis include heat, swelling, and pain in one or more joints. There will typically be decreased range of motion in the affected joint(s), as well as fever, lethargy, and lack of appetite. Any trauma that penetrates a joint, or a surgery involving a joint, can result in septic arthritis. Osteoarthritis, other joint damage, or injections into a joint can also be root causes of septic arthritis. If a dog with septic arthritis is very ill, they will be hospitalized and treated as necessary to become stabilized. Joint fluid will be extracted for bacterial culture and the joint may be lavaged to minimize joint damage. Your veterinarian may prescribe a broad-spectrum antibiotic while waiting for the results of the bacterial culture and sensitivity panel. Once the best choice of antibiotic is made, the medication will typically be given for at least 4 to 8 weeks. In addition, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) or a narcotic may be given to relieve pain and inflammation.

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Lymphocytic Plasmacytic Gastroenteritis in Dogs

Lymphocytic plasmacytic gastroenteritis is a form of inflammatory bowel disease. While the exact cause is not known, it is possible that the intestinal bacteria themselves may actually be involved in stimulating the immune response. Signs included diarrhea, vomiting, loss of appetite, weight loss, and blood in the stool/vomit. Diagnostics may include CBC, blood chemistry, testing for pancreatitis, folate and B12 levels, radiographs, and ultrasound. Treatment may include nutrition management, immunosuppressives, and dietary supplementation of cobalamin, prebiotics, and probiotics.

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Lymphocytic Plasmacytic Gastroenteritis in Cats

Lymphocytic plasmacytic gastroenteritis is a form of inflammatory bowel disease. While the exact cause is not known, it is possible that the intestinal bacteria themselves may actually be involved in stimulating the immune response. Signs included diarrhea, vomiting, loss of appetite, weight loss, and blood in the stool/vomit. Diagnostics may include CBC, blood chemistry, testing for pancreatitis, folate and B12 levels, radiographs, and ultrasound. Treatment may include nutrition management, immunosuppressives, and dietary supplementation of cobalamin, prebiotics, and probiotics.

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Pulmonary Hypertension in Dogs

Pulmonary hypertension means that the peak blood pressure in the arteries of the lungs is much higher than normal. Several abnormalities can lead to high blood pressure in the arteries of the lungs and many of the underlying reasons involve the heart. There are many signs of pulmonary hypertension including exercise intolerance, difficulty breathing with or without exertion/exercise, rapid breathing, coughing, spitting up blood from the lungs, fainting, and more. There are many potential causes of pulmonary hypertension. Several medications are available to treat your dog. It is important to maintain a low-stress environment while any underlying cardiac or respiratory disease is treated and managed. Activity may need to be restricted. It is essential to monitor dogs with pulmonary hypertension for worsening of clinical signs. Periodic physical examinations, blood pressure monitoring, and ultrasound evaluations of the heart will also be important. The long-term prognosis is very guarded for dogs with pulmonary hypertension.

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Pulmonary Hypertension in Cats

Pulmonary hypertension means that the peak blood pressure in the arteries of the lungs is much higher than normal. Several abnormalities can lead to high blood pressure in the arteries of the lungs and many of the underlying reasons involve the heart. There are many signs of pulmonary hypertension including exercise intolerance, difficulty breathing with or without exertion/exercise, rapid breathing, coughing, spitting up blood from the lungs, fainting, and more. There are many potential causes of pulmonary hypertension. Several medications are available to treat your cat. Activity may need to be restricted. It is essential to monitor cats with pulmonary hypertension for worsening of clinical signs. Periodic physical examinations, blood pressure monitoring, and ultrasound evaluations of the heart are also important. The long-term prognosis is very guarded for cats with pulmonary hypertension.

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Narcolepsy in Dogs

A narcoleptic episode involves sudden collapse and loss of movement in which the pet literally falls asleep, often while physically active, then wakes up abruptly and proceeds as if nothing happened. Narcolepsy is usually a congenital/inherited condition but it may also be associated with other diseases such as obesity or immune system disorders. Narcolepsy is not painful or life threatening, but diagnosis by a veterinarian is still important. There is no definitive cure for narcolepsy, but help is still available for affected dogs. Although you may not be able to stop the episodes, by identifying possible patterns that precipitate the incidents, you may be able to reduce the frequency and severity of events.

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Protein-Losing Enteropathy (PLE) in Dogs

The word enteropathy means any disease of the intestinal system. Protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) is not a specific disease, but rather describes a group of diseases that cause the loss of proteins from the bloodstream into the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

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Protein-Losing Enteropathy (PLE) in Cats

The word enteropathy means any disease of the intestinal system. Protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) is not a specific disease, but rather describes a group of diseases that cause the loss of proteins from the bloodstream into the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

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Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs) in Cats

While urinary tract disorders are fairly common in cats, urinary tract infections (UTIs) are fairly uncommon. Cats with UTIs tend to have the following signs: frequently passing small amounts of urine, straining to urinate, blood in the urine, crying out or whining while urinating, licking their genitals, and urinating outside the litterbox. Generally, a UTI occurs when bacteria travel up the urethra and into the bladder. If your cat presents to your veterinarian with urinary signs, your veterinarian will first perform a urinalysis. The most common organism to cause UTIs in cats is Escherichia coli, but there are several other organisms that may be involved. Once the culture and sensitivity results are received, an appropriate antibiotic will be prescribed.

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Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs) in Dogs

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are fairly common in dogs. Dogs with UTIs tend to have the following signs: attempting to urinate frequently when they go outside, straining to urinate, blood in the urine, crying out or whining while urinating, licking their genitals, and a break in housetraining. Generally, a UTI occurs when bacteria travel up the urethra and into the bladder. If your dog presents to your veterinarian with urinary signs, your veterinarian will first perform a urinalysis. The most common organism to cause UTIs in dogs is Escherichia coli, but there are several other organisms that may be involved. Once the culture and sensitivity results are received, an appropriate antibiotic will be prescribed.

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Coccidioidomycosis in Dogs

Coccidioidomycosis is a fungal disease caused by the soil fungus Coccidioides immitis. The early signs of coccidioidomycosis include fever, lethargy, lack of appetite, coughing, and joint pain.

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Fibrocartilaginous Embolus/Emboli (FCE) in Cats

Fibrocartilaginous Embolus (FCE) or fibrocartilaginous embolic myelopathy (FCEM) refers to a condition caused by a piece of fibrocartilaginous material thought to originate from an intervertebral disc, lodging in an artery or vein causing ischemia of an area of the spinal cord. Confirmatory diagnosis requires MRI. Treatment is primarily supportive. Physical rehabilitation and encouraging continued use of affected limbs supports recovery. Recurrence is unlikely.

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Fibrocartilaginous Embolus/Emboli (FCE) in Dogs

Fibrocartilaginous Embolus (FCE) or fibrocartilaginous embolic myelopathy (FCEM) refers to a condition caused by a piece of fibrocartilaginous material thought to originate from an intervertebral disc, lodging in an artery or vein causing ischemia of an area of the spinal cord. This is more commonly seen in younger large breed dogs; however, certain small breeds and all ages can be affected. FCEM is usually seen as a sharp pain initially with sudden onset weakness/paralysis that no longer appears to be painful. It may be unilateral or bilateral and can cause varying degrees of neurologic deficits. Confirmatory diagnosis requires MRI. Treatment is primarily supportive to avoid pressure sores and assist with urination if needed. Physical rehabilitation and encouraging continued use of affected limbs supports recovery but improvement can take several months. Recurrence is unlikely.

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Coccidioidomycosis in Cats

Coccidioidomycosis is a fungal disease caused by the soil fungus Coccidioides immitis. The early signs of coccidioidomycosis include fever, lethargy, poor appetite, coughing, and joint pain.

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Abscesses in Cats

An abscess is a “pocket of pus” located somewhere in the body. Abscesses can be located superficially or deep within the body tissues. Typically, an abscess appears suddenly as a painful swelling (if it is not located inside a body cavity or deep within tissue). A cat with an abscess will often have a fever, even if the abscess has ruptured and drained to the outside of the body. One of the most common causes is a bite from another animal. Abscess treatment depends on the location and the severity of the infection. Most abscesses are treated on an outpatient basis, rather than in the hospital. Appropriate antibiotic therapy is a critical component of the successful treatment of abscesses, no matter the location. It is also important to ensure adequate pain relief during treatment of an abscess. Delayed or inadequate treatment may lead to chronically draining tracts in the tissue or even to organ system compromise, so it is important to follow all treatment instructions from your veterinarian.

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Septic Arthritis in Cats

Septic arthritis occurs when bacteria or another infectious agent is introduced into one (or more) joints, leading to painful inflammation. The signs of septic arthritis include heat, swelling, and pain in one or more joints. There will typically be decreased range of motion in the affected joint(s), as well as fever, lethargy, and lack of appetite. Any trauma that penetrates a joint, or a surgery involving a joint, can result in septic arthritis. Osteoarthritis, other joint damage, or injections into a joint can also be root causes of septic arthritis. If a cat with septic arthritis is very ill, they will be hospitalized and treated as necessary to become stabilized. Joint fluid will be extracted for bacterial culture, and the joint may be lavaged to minimize joint damage. Your veterinarian may prescribe a broad-spectrum antibiotic while waiting for the results of the bacterial culture and sensitivity panel. Once the best choice of antibiotic is made, the medication will typically be given for at least 4 to 8 weeks. In addition, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) or a narcotic may be given to relieve pain and inflammation.

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Cyanosis in Cats

Cyanosis is defined as a bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes of the body caused by inadequate oxygen levels. Several different conditions involving the cardiovascular/circulatory system and/or the respiratory system that can lead to cyanosis, including congenital defects, degeneration of heart valves or heart muscle, blood clots in the lungs, pulmonary hypertension, pneumonia, asthma, lung flukes, smoke inhalation, or muscle damage to the diaphragm. Cyanosis is an emergency, and the root cause may be life threatening and may or may not be reversible. Once back home, homecare instructions must be followed carefully.

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Ulcerative Keratitis in Cats

Ulcerative keratitis is a kind of inflammation that occurs in the cornea of the eye. Some breeds seem to develop them more commonly, particularly Himalayan, Persian, and Burmese cats. The signs of ulcerative keratitis depend somewhat on the cause and how long the condition has been present. There are many potential causes of ulcerative keratitis, including trauma, infection, and abnormal tear production. Antibiotic ointment or drops will be prescribed, and it is important to prevent additional trauma to the cornea. Superficial corneal ulcers typically heal within 5 to 7 days.

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Brain Injury in Cats

Brain injuries are devastating and, unfortunately, often fatal. The typical signs of brain injury in a cat include altered consciousness that may signal bleeding in the skull, decreased blood flow to the brain, or fluid causing swelling within the brain itself. There are many potential causes of brain injury and treatment will always be determined by the underlying problem that led to the injury.

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Pythiosis in Dogs

Pythiosis is a waterborne infection that can infect the GI tract or skin of dogs. It can cause extreme weight loss, vomiting, diarrhea or skin lesions such as ulcerating nodules and draining tracts. This disease is more common in southern regions. Treatment involves surgical removal of all affected material if possible, including limb amputation if indicated. Different antifungal therapies have shown some efficacy and need to be continued longterm. Prognosis for resolution of pythiosis is guarded to poor.

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Pneumothorax in Dogs

The definition of a pneumothorax is an accumulation of air outside the lungs, but inside the chest wall. The air outside the lung prevents the lungs from inflating normally, and can lead to lung collapse. There are several variations of pneumothorax.

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Systemic Hypertension (High Blood Pressure) in Cats

Systemic hypertension describes high blood pressure throughout the entire body. Hypertension in cats is often due to an underlying disease (secondary hypertension). When there is no underlying disease, it is called primary hypertension. There are several signs of hypertension including sudden blindness, bleeding inside the globe of the eye, persistently dilated pupils, head tilt, seizures, disorientation, ataxia, circling, weakness or partial paralysis, nystagmus, increased drinking and urinating with the progression of chronic kidney disease, hematuria, and epistaxis. The treatment of cats with hypertension depends upon the underlying cause. Medications commonly used to manage hypertension in cats include angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists (ARBs), beta blockers, diuretics, and calcium channel blockers. The course of hypertension in cats depends on the underlying cause.

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Atrial Fibrillation in Cats

Atrial fibrillation describes very rapid contractions or twitching of the heart muscle, specifically in the atria. Most of the time, atrial fibrillation in cats occurs secondary to heart disease. Sometimes, in large breed cats, atrial fibrillation will occur as a primary heart problem. Most cats who develop atrial fibrillation have underlying heart disease, so the signs that are observed are often related to that underlying condition, and may include exercise intolerance, cough, or difficulty breathing. Treatment varies depending on whether the pet has primary or secondary atrial fibrillation. Your cat will need to be monitored on a regular basis.

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Why Cats Lick Their Privates

Cats are always going to lick but it is sometimes embarrassing when they lick their private parts. Licking after eliminating is normal; however, if your cat licks more frequently or you notice other signs such as discharge, swollen or red penis, vulva, or anus, pustules, discoloration of the skin, or you observe your cat straining to urinate, see your veterinarian for help. Appropriate medical therapy can reduce your cat’s discomfort.

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Aortic Thromboembolism in Cats

An aortic thromboembolism results when a blood clot is dislodged and travels through the aorta, becoming lodged in a distant location. This causes severely reduced blood flow to the tissues receiving blood from that particular part of the aorta, leading to decreased oxygen in the tissues. Mixed breed cats, Abyssinian, Ragdoll, and Birmans are the most commonly affected. Sudden paralysis and pain, usually in the rear legs, are the most common clinical signs of aortic thromboembolism, although weakness and lameness may be seen. Other signs may include decreased or absent pulses in the femoral arteries of the rear legs, rapid breathing or difficulty breathing, vocalization from pain, vomiting, and the nailbeds and footpads may be pale or bluish. Initially, cats may need to be treated as inpatients. Drugs to prevent platelets from clumping together will be prescribed. The expected course of this disorder is days to weeks for full recovery of function to the legs, but the prognosis in general is very poor.

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Syncope (Fainting) in Dogs

Syncope (or fainting) is defined as a temporary loss of consciousness that occurs when the brain does not receive enough oxygen. Most dogs who experience syncope spontaneously recover once appropriate levels of oxygen reach the brain.

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Amyloidosis in Cats

Amyloidosis occurs when amyloid proteins are deposited outside of cells in various tissues and organs causing tissue and organ dysfunction. It is uncommon in cats, except for Abyssinians, Siamese, Burmese, Tonkinese, Devon Rex, and Oriental Shorthair breeds. Signs depend on the organs involved, but kidney involvement is most common. If kidneys are involved signs include mouth ulcers, weight loss, vomiting, and dehydration. For cats with liver involvement, signs include weakness, pale gum color, distended abdomen, rapid heart rate, rapid breathing, abdominal pain, and collapse. There is no specific medication for the treatment of amyloidosis in cats, with treatment focusing on kidney support.

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First Aid for Tail Injuries in Cats

Tail injuries are common and can sometimes be managed with home first aid but some cases require veterinary care. Abrasions are mild scrapes that can be treated with daily cleaning and application of antibiotic ointment. Lacerations are more serious cuts that may expose underlying muscle and bone requiring stitches and often antibiotics. Tail fractures can heal well if they occur near the tip of the tail but if bones are severely damaged then amputation may be required. Nerve damage can occur from fractures, crushing injuries or severe tail pulls causing stretching or tearing of the nerves and can result in loss of fecal and urinary continence and can also result in a limp tail.

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Wobbler Syndrome in Dogs (Cervical spondylomyopathy)

Wobbler syndrome is a disease of the neck (the cervical spine) that is seen in large and giant breeds of dog. These dogs experience compression of the spinal cord and the spinal nerve roots, resulting in nervous system deficits and/or neck pain,

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Ataxia in Cats

The word ataxia means incoordination within the nervous system. There are several different forms of ataxia, depending upon where in the nervous system the abnormality occurs. The most common sign of ataxia, regardless of the cause, is an abnormal gait in which the cat is very unsteady on her feet. Treatment of ataxia will be influenced by the root cause. Pain management, supportive care, and creating a safe environment (e.g., preventing access to stairs) are cornerstones of ataxia treatment.

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Corneal Dystrophy in Dogs

Corneal dystrophy is a term used to describe several conditions that occur in dogs and cause the corneas to become opaque. There are three major categories of corneal dystrophy: epithelial, stromal, and endothelial. Each is named by the anatomic location of the abnormal tissue and opacity.

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Collie Eye Anomaly

Collie Eye Anomaly (CEA) is a genetic mutation affecting many breeds that causes developmental defects in the eye that can lead to vision deficits or blindness. This defect can be diagnosed by a veterinary ophthalmologist between 6 and 8 weeks of age by visualizing spots of choroidal hypoplasia or a colobomas . It can be associated with microphthalmia or enophthalmia. It can lead to retinal detachment and blindness. Although laser repair of partial retinal detachments can be attempted if detected in early stages, there is generally no treatment for CEA. Vision varies depending on the extent of the lesions and some dogs will become blind. Prevention requires not breeding animals that carry the mutation and this can be achieved through genetic testing of breeding dogs.

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Pulmonary Thromboembolism (Blood Clots in the Lungs) in Cats

Pulmonary thromboembolism describes a condition when a blood clot lodges in one of the pulmonary arteries, blocking blood flow into the portion of the lung served by that artery. The signs of pulmonary thromboembolism include very sudden difficulty breathing, rapid breathing, decreased appetite, fainting, coughing, spitting up blood, weakness, exercise intolerance, and the inability to get comfortable. There are many important considerations and potential causes of pulmonary thromboembolism in cats. Many cats with thromboembolism are first treated as inpatients until the oxygen levels in their blood returns to normal. Once the cat returns home, it is important to restrict activity. There are some medications available for treating this disorder in cats. The prognosis for cats with pulmonary thromboembolism is generally guarded to poor, and it depends upon resolution of the underlying cause.

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Pyelonephritis in Cats

Pyelonephritis is an upper urinary tract infection involving the kidneys and ureters. Many cats have no clinical signs when they have pyelonephritis, although they may have signs of lower urinary tract disease. Pyelonephritis is usually caused by a bacterial infection that moves up the urinary tract from the bladder to the kidneys. Cats with sudden pyelonephritis do well and return to normal health unless concurrent complications exist.

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Chronic Degenerative Valve Disease in Dogs: In Depth

This handout summarizes the normal function of the dog heart, and outlines the abnormalities and changes associated with degeneration of the four different valves found in the heart. An explanation is provided of clinical signs associated with valve disease, as well as the recommended tests and treatments for this condition. Staging of heart disease is also discussed.

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Food Intolerance in Cats

Adverse food reactions in cats are either caused by food allergy – an immune response to something ingested or food intolerance – a non-immunological response to something ingested. Signs of food intolerance are generally digestive in nature only. Food intolerance will generally occur on the initial exposure to the food or food additive in contrast to food allergy which requires repeated exposures to develop. Different causes of food intolerance include food poisoning, or inappropriate ingestion of an irritant, reaction to food additives, histamine reactions, lactose intolerance and dietary indiscretion such as eating fat or bones. A dietary history is important in diagnosing these conditions.

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Juvenile Hyperparathyroidism

Juvenile hyperparathyroidism is a rare, inherited condition of German Shepherds and leads to a constant state of elevated parathyroid hormone, affecting calcium and phosphorus balance within the body. It is an inherited, autosomal recessive trait causing stunted growth. Removal of anywhere from one to three of the parathyroid glands is performed to bring the calcium levels into a more normal range.

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Multidrug Resistance Mutation (MDR1)

Many herding breeds (most commonly Collies and Australian Shepherds) have a mutation at the MDR1 gene that makes them more sensitive to the negative effects of certain medications. These drugs include several antiparasitic agents (when given at high doses), the antidiarrheal agent loperamide (Imodium®), and several anticancer drugs. The effects of the mutation vary in severity, depending on whether the dog carries one or two copies of the mutation. There is a commercially-available test that assesses blood samples or a cheek swab for the presence of the MDR1 mutation.

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Pemphigus in Dogs

Pemphigus is an autoimmune skin disease, in which the body’s immune system attacks the connections between its own skin cells. The three most common types of pemphigus are pemphigus foliaceus, pemphigus vulgaris, and pemphigus erythematosus. Treatment requires suppression of the immune system and prognosis varies depending on the type.

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Discoid (Cutaneous) Lupus Erythematosus

Discoid Lupus Erythematosus (DLE) is an autoimmune condition that cases skin sloughing particularly around the nose causing scabbing and erosions that can become infected with bacteria. It can also affect the ear flaps, genitals and rarely spread through the entire body. DLE is diagnosed by submitting skin biopsies of affected areas for histopathological analysis. As well as antibiotics to treat secondary bacterial infections, treatment involves suppression of the immune system including tacrolimus or steroid ointments/creams applied to the affected area. Some dogs will need tetracycline and niacinamide or stronger anti-inflammatories such as cyclosporine or corticosteroids. These treatments can be weaned once lesions resolve but flare-ups will likely occur, needing rechecks and repeat therapy. Sun exposure must be minimized as UV light can worsen the disease. If untreated, lesions can develop into squamous cell carcinoma.

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Legg-Calve-Perthes Disease in Dogs

Legg-Calve-Perthes disease is also known as avascular or aseptic necrosis of the femoral head. This is a condition in which the head of the femur (the 'ball' in the ball-and-socket joint that forms the hip) spontaneously begins to degenerate. Over time, this degeneration will cause collapse of the hip and lead to arthritis.

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Dermatomyositis

Dermatomyositis is hereditary, immune-mediated disease of the skin muscles and blood vessels affecting primarily collies, Shetland Sheepdogs and mixes of these breeds. Other breeds can experience similar disease. Signs are usually first recognized in puppies but can present in young adulthood. Signs include: skin lesions (crusty erosions, patchy alopecia or ulcers) around the eyes, lips, face, ear flaps or tail tip, foot pad lesions; atrophy of chewing muscles or difficulty chewing; stiff gait and megaesophagus in severely affected dogs. Skin biopsies are diagnostic. Treatment involves treating secondary bacterial infections, reducing sun exposure, EFAs, and immunomodulatory medications including tetracycline, niacinamide, pentoxifylline, cyclosporine and corticosteroids. Prognosis varies depending on severity.

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Hemophilia A & B in Dogs

Hemophilia A and B are clotting disorders involving a deficiency of a specific clotting factor (A: Factor VIII, B: Factor IX) needed for appropriate homeostasis. They are caused by a sex-linked recessive genetic mutation. Affected dogs will show inappropriate hemorrhage including bruising, lameness induced by bleeding into joints and body cavity hemorrhage. It can be diagnosed with a slow APTT and demonstrating low levels of the factor involved. Hemophilia A is more common than B and also generally more severe. Because it is sex-linked recessive, males are more likely to be affected than females but females still act as carriers, so genetic screening is important prior to breeding to prevent this disease.

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Hygroma in Dogs

Hygromas are fluid-filled non-painful swellings that develop suddenly over a bony prominence. They are the body’s reaction to repetitive trauma and usually a result of laying too frequently on hard surfaces. The best treatment is to ensure the prominence affected is well padded to allow the hygroma to recede. This can be accomplished by appropriate padding in the dog’s living quarters and by directly padding the affected area if possible. Rarely, hygromas become infected requiring antibiotics. Very few will need surgery to manage them. This would be recommended on an individual case basis.

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Muscular Dystrophy

This handout discusses muscular dystrophy (MD), primarily in dogs. The cause of the disease is a defect in the proteins found in muscle cells. It is often an inherited disease, usually affecting young dogs. Clinical signs (usually starting as muscle weakness) and diagnosis of the condition are outlined. There is no effective treatment for the condition.

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Fanconi Syndrome in Dogs

Fanconi syndrome affects the ability of the kidney tubules to re-absorb certain electrolytes and nutrients such as potassium and glucose, allowing them to spill into the urine. This causes excessive drinking and urination and ultimately kidney disease. Basenjis are most commonly affected. It is often diagnosed based on glucosuria without hypoglycemia. Though reversal of this disease isn’t possible, treatment involves supplementation with different minerals and electrolytes as well as standard treatments for management of kidney disease. Regularly monitoring of blood parameters is recommended to allow early intervention if the disease is worsening. Fanconi-like syndrome has occurred in dogs ingesting certain chicken jerky treats and can be resolved by discontinuing these treats.

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Sebaceous Adenitis in Dogs

Sebaceous adenitis is an immune-mediated disorder in which there is an inflammatory process directed against the sebaceous glands in the skin. The sebaceous glands are associated with the hair follicles and produce the substance that helps to keep the skin supple and the haircoat soft.

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Pituitary Macroadenoma in Dogs

Pituitary macroadenomas are large, non-cancerous (benign) tumors of the pituitary gland. These tumors may be functional (hormone-secreting) or nonfunctional, and their effects depend on whether the tumor is producing hormones.

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Atlantoaxial Luxation

This handout summarizes atlantoaxial (AA) luxation, a condition in which instability or excessive movement is present between the first two vertebrae within the neck. Atlantoaxial luxation can be caused by trauma, hereditary factors, or a combination of these two factors. The most common sign of AA luxation is neck pain, though severely affected dogs may lose their ability to breathe due to paralysis of the diaphragm.

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Color Dilution Alopecia in Dogs

Color dilution alopecia (CDA) is a genetic recessive inherited condition that causes patches of hair thinning or loss, and may also include flaky and/or itchy skin. The condition is associated with individuals who have what is called dilute color, and is most commonly seen in dogs with a blue or fawn coat.

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Eosinophilic Keratitis in Cats

Feline eosinophilic keratitis is a chronic inflammatory disease of the cornea that results in the surface of the eye appearing pink, white, or chalky. It is caused by an accumulation of inflammatory cells called eosinophils. The clinical signs, appearance, diagnosis, and treatment of this condition are explained in this handout.

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Cyanobacteria Poisoning

Blue-green algae, also called cyanobacteria, is found in fresh and brackish water of ponds and lakes. This microscopic bacteria can also grow in backyard fountains, garden pots, bird baths, and anywhere water is stagnant. Regardless of where they are found, cyanobacteria can be dangerous.

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Progressive Retinal Atrophy in Cats

Progressive retinal atrophy (PRA) is a group of degenerative diseases that affect photoreceptor cells in the eyes. With this disease, the cells deteriorate over time eventually leading to blindness in the affected cat. There are two main forms of PRA recognized in cats, an early onset, inherited from called retinal dysplasia and a late onset form. This disease has been shown to occur as an inherited condition in Abyssinian and Persian cats. When a cat develops PRA, it should be removed from the breeding program, along with its parents and siblings. As PRA progresses, your cat's vision gradually worsens until she becomes completely blind. There is currently no effective treatment available for PRA. For the average family pet,blindness is not as significant as it would be in a human, and a blind cat will rely more on its other senses.

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Atrioventricular Valve Dysplasia in Cats

Atrioventricular (AV) valve dysplasia describes a developmental malformation of the mitral or tricuspid valve. AV valve dysplasia is one of the most common cardiac abnormalities diagnosed in cats. Dysplasia may occur in both the mitral and tricuspid valves in the same cat; however, this is not a common condition. There may be a breed predisposition to mitral valve dysplasia in Sphinx cats. Tricuspid valve dysplasia occurs more frequently in Chartreaux and Siamese cats. Exercise intolerance, accumulation of fluid in the abdomen, weight loss, and stunted growth may be seen. Difficulty breathing or collapse may occur if congestive heart failure develops. Treatment of AV valve dysplasia is focused on managing signs of congestive heart failure, generally using medications. Activity may need to be restricted based on your cat’s exercise tolerance and nutritional modification may be recommended.

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Ovarian Remnant Syndrome in Dogs

Ovarian remnant syndrome is a condition that occurs when ovarian tissue remains inside the body after a female dog is spayed. This tissue can produce estrogen, triggering signs of heat in the dog.

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Pituitary Macroadenoma in Cats

Pituitary macroadenomas are large, non-cancerous (benign) tumors of the pituitary gland. These tumors may be functional (hormone-secreting) or nonfunctional, and their effects depend on whether the tumor is producing hormones.

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Patent Ductus Arteriosus in Cats

The ductus arteriosus is an arterial shunt between the aorta and the pulmonary artery. Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) is a heart defect that occurs when the ductus arteriosus fails to close down at birth. If the ductus arteriosus fails to close properly after birth, the difference in pressure between the pulmonary artery and the aorta means that the blood will take the path of least resistance and flow from the aorta through the patent ductus arteriosus into the pulmonary artery, needlessly recirculating this oxygenated blood back to the lungs. The larger the PDA is, the more blood will be shunted through it, causing more significant signs. A PDA will usually be diagnosed when your veterinarian hears a continuous heart murmur during a routine physical examination of your kitten. The goal of treatment for a forward flowing PDA is to stop the blood flowing through the shunt. Your veterinarian will refer you to a veterinary cardiovascular surgeon, who will determine the optimal treatment for your cat. Provided that the condition is treated before heart failure develops, the success rate associated with surgical closure is very high and the prognosis for a normal life after surgery is excellent.

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Diabetic Remission in Cats

Cats with diabetes have the potential to go into remission where they may no longer need to receive insulin. Factors that can affect the likelihood of remission include the type of insulin given, your cat's diet, and how long your cat has been diabetic. It is important to recognize the signs of hypoglycemia, as they may be your first indication of remission.

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Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) Gene Mutation

In 2016, researchers identified a gene, called the pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) gene, that contributes to obesity in Labrador Retrievers. A specific mutation of this gene, involving the deletion of 14 DNA base pairs, has been shown to contribute to increased body weight, increased body fat percentages, and increased food motivation in Labrador Retrievers.

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Arthritis and Nutrition for Cats

Approximately 20% of cats across all ages suffer from painful osteoarthritis in one or more joints. The incidence of osteoarthritis increases with age. Because cats are living longer, it is more likely than ever that every cat owner will face the issue of osteoarthritis at some point.

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Globoid-cell Leukodystrophy in Dogs

Globoid-cell leukodystrophy (GCL) is also called Krabbe disease, and it is uniformly fatal. GCL is a very rare disease, and it is caused by a mutation on the dog's DNA.

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Ovarian Remnant Syndrome in Cats

Ovarian remnant syndrome is a condition that occurs when ovarian tissue remains inside the body after a female cat is spayed. This tissue can produce estrogen, triggering signs of heat in the cat. Ovarian remnants may be left behind during surgery, or may be caused by the presence of accessory ovarian tissue.

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Meningoencephalitis of Unknown Origin

Meningoencephalitis is a term referring to inflammation of the brain and the surrounding fluid and tissues. Meningoencephalitis of unknown origin is a term used to describe those cases of meningoencephalitis in which MRI and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis indicate inflammatory, non-infectious CNS disease but diagnosis through histopathological analysis is not available.

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Systemic Lupus in Cats

Systemic lupus is a rare feline autoimmune disease, caused by abnormal regulation of the immune system. In this condition, the cat's immune system recognizes the body's own cells as foreign. The immune system forms antibodies against tissues in the body, directly attacking the body's own cells and depositing antibodies throughout the body's tissues.

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Cutaneous Lymphoma in Cats

Skin cancers are fairly common in cats, but cutaneous lymphoma is quite uncommon. Only about 3% of lymphoma cases in cats occur in the skin. There may be a linkage between feline leukemia virus (FeLV) and feline cutaneous lymphoma. Unfortunately, feline cutaneous lymphoma is considered incurable.

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Juvenile Cellulitis (Puppy Strangles)

Juvenile cellulitis, also known by the name puppy strangles, is an uncommon skin condition of young dogs. Juvenile cellulitis most commonly affects young puppies, between one and six months of age. The first sign of juvenile cellulitis is usually an acute swelling of the face and muzzle. This generalized swelling is typically followed by the development of raised bumps and pustules over the face, muzzle, and ears.

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Seizures and Syncope

Seizures and syncope are commonly confused, due to similarities between the appearance of these episodes. A seizure is a sudden, uncontrolled movement of the body caused by abnormal brain activity. Syncope describes a temporary loss of consciousness and posture, also known as 'fainting' or 'passing out'.

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Linear Foreign Body in Cats

One especially dangerous type of foreign body in cats is referred to as a linear foreign body. This term describes long, thin objects such as string, yarn, and tinsel. If one end of the linear foreign body becomes lodged in the gastrointestinal tract, intestinal perforation may occur. The most common signs of a linear foreign body include vomiting, anorexia (refusal to eat), dehydration, and lethargy. If your veterinarian suspects a linear foreign body, your cat will need an exploratory laparotomy.

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Ichthyosis in Dogs

Ichthyosis is a very rare skin condition in dogs that is the result of a recessive genetic mutation. The mutation prevents the outer layer of skin from developing properly. Once a dog is diagnosed with ichthyosis, the symptoms may be controlled with frequently applied medicated shampoos and rinses.

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Round Cell Tumors in Dogs

Round cell tumors are among the most common skin tumors in dogs, and they typically form just under the skin, although they may change the surface of the skin above them. When caught early, most round cell tumors are removed easily, and surgery is generally curative. The most important take home message is to be vigilant, and to have any skin lumps or bumps assessed by your veterinarian promptly.

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Syringomyelia and Chiari-Like Malformation

Syringomyelia is the term that describes fluid-filled cavities that develop within the spinal cord causing abnormal sensation in affected dogs. The underlying issue is called chiari-like malformation (CLM). CLM describes a mismatch between the size of the brain, which is too big, and the space within the skull, which is too small. Dogs that develop CLM and subsequent syringomyelia will often develop withdrawn behavior.

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Lysosomal Storage Diseases in Dogs

The term lysosomal storage diseases describes a group of disorders in which certain metabolic enzymes necessary for normal body functions are not produced by the body. Lysosomal storage diseases are rare and are inherited via recessive genes, meaning both parents are carriers.

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Pigmentary Keratitis

Pigmentary keratitis refers to a brownish-black discoloration of the surface of the eye, caused by the deposition of pigmented melanin granules. Pigmentary keratitis is most common in brachycephalic dogs, such as Pugs, Boxers, Bulldogs, and French Bulldogs.

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Hepatic Microvascular Dysplasia

Hepatic microvascular dysplasia is an inherited abnormality of the liver. In affected dogs, the microscopic blood vessels within the liver are underdeveloped or absent. This decreases blood flow within the liver, causing atrophy (a decrease in size) of the liver and its cells. The liver is less capable of processing toxins and producing proteins that are needed for growth and development.

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Focal Seizures and Fly-Biting in Dogs

A focal seizure refers to an abnormal surge of electrical activity that is confined to a specific area of the brain. Unlike a generalized seizure, in which the animal's entire brain is affected and therefore the entire body shows signs of a seizure, a focal seizure only affects a localized region of the brain and therefore only has limited effects on the body.

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Vitamin D Poisoning in Dogs

Vitamin D poisoning occurs when a dog ingests a toxic dose of vitamin D. A common source of vitamin D poisoning is when a dog accidentally ingests rodenticides containing vitamin D. Another source of vitamin D poisoning is the accidental ingestion of certain human medications.

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Mastitis in Cats

Mastitis is a term used to describe inflammation of a mammary gland (breast), most frequently seen in the postpartum period after a cat gives birth. In most cases, mastitis is caused by a bacterial infection. Trauma to the nipple or teat canal can allow bacteria to enter, traveling up into the mammary gland and creating a bacterial infection. Most cats with mastitis can be treated on an outpatient basis with oral antibiotics and pain medications, though severe cases may require hospitalization or surgery.

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Antibiotic-Resistant Bacterial Infections in Dogs

Antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections are bacterial infections that are minimally or no longer responsive to commonly used antibiotics. Although these bacterial infections occur naturally, the frequent and/or inappropriate use of antibiotics accelerates the process. Dogs with certain medical conditions may also be predisposed.

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Mastitis in Dogs

Mastitis is a term used to describe inflammation of a mammary gland. In most cases, mastitis is caused by a bacterial infection. Trauma to the mammary gland, or prolonged periods of milk accumulation without milk removal, can lead to inflammation within the mammary gland. Most dogs with mastitis can be treated on an outpatient basis with oral antibiotics and pain medications, though severe cases may require hospitalization or surgery.

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Focal Seizures and Fly-Biting in Cats

A focal seizure refers to an abnormal surge of electrical activity that is confined to a specific area of the brain. Unlike a generalized seizure, in which the animal's entire brain is affected and therefore the entire body shows signs of a seizure, a focal seizure only affects a localized region of the brain and therefore only has limited effects on the body.

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Vitamin D Poisoning in Cats

Vitamin D poisoning occurs when a cat ingests a toxic dose of vitamin D. A common source of vitamin D poisoning is when a cat accidentally ingests rodenticides containing vitamin D. Vitamin D poisoning causes a variety of clinical signs. The initial clinical signs, occurring anywhere from 8 to 48 hours after ingestion, include depression, weakness, and appetite loss. Vomiting, increased drinking and urination, constipation, and dehydration typically follow these signs.

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Antibiotic-Resistant Bacterial Infections in Cats

Antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections are bacterial infections that are minimally or no longer responsive to commonly used antibiotics. Although these bacterial infections occur naturally, the frequent and/or inappropriate use of antibiotics accelerates the process. Cats with certain medical conditions may also be predisposed.

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Acne in Dogs

Canine acne is an inflammatory disorder of the lips and the skin of the muzzle. Dogs with mild cases of acne often have red bumps or pustules on their skin. This can, in more severe cases, lead to generalized swelling of the lips and muzzle, bleeding wounds, or scabs on the face. Commonly affected breeds include Boxers, English Bulldogs, Great Danes, German Shorthaired Pointers, and others. A variety of treatments are available and depend on the underlying cause of the acne.

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Femoral Head Ostectomy (FHO) in Cats

An FHO, or femoral head ostectomy, is a surgical procedure that aims to restore pain-free mobility to a diseased or damaged hip by removing the head and neck of the femur (the long leg bone or thighbone). This procedure is commonly recommended for cats, especially those who are at a healthy weight. Active cats often experience better results with FHO than less-active cats. It is important to follow your veterinarian's post-operative instructions. Most cats will show signs of complete recovery approximately six weeks post-operatively.

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Femoral Head Ostectomy (FHO) in Dogs

An FHO, or femoral head ostectomy, is a surgical procedure that aims to restore pain-free mobility to a diseased or damaged hip by removing the head and neck of the femur (the long leg bone or thighbone). This procedure is commonly recommended for smaller dogs, especially those who are at a healthy weight. Active dogs often experience better results with FHO than less-active dogs. It is important to follow your veterinarian's post-operative instructions. Most dogs will show signs of complete recovery approximately six weeks post-operatively.

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Vitamin A Poisoning in Dogs

Too much vitamin A or hypervitaminosis A can lead to serious toxicity. While somewhat uncommon in North America, vitamin A toxicity is sometimes diagnosed in dogs that are fed primarily table scraps. It takes a long time for the clinical signs associated with vitamin A toxicity to develop; symptoms do not usually appear until the dog is at least middle-aged.

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Gastropexy

A gastropexy is a surgical procedure that is sometimes performed in large breed dogs to prevent the life-threatening condition, gastric dilatation and volvulus (GDV), also known as bloat. This handout explains how the procedure works, how it is used as a preventative and in emergency situations, risk factors, and post-operative care.

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Nasal Polyps in Cats

Polyps are benign fleshy growths that originate from the cells lining a cat's nasal passages, leading to a variety of clinical signs such as sneezing, difficulty breathing, and recurrent ear infections. The various diagnostic tools and treatment approaches are explained in this handout.

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Instructions for Ear Cleaning and Administering Ear Medication in Cats

This handout discusses the anatomy of the cat’s ear canal, how to safely clean your cat’s ears to prevent ear infections, and how to apply topical ear medications if needed.

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Lacrimal Duct Obstruction in Dogs

The lacrimal duct is part of the nasolacrimal system, a series of narrow tubes that allow tears to drain from the eye into the nose and mouth. This duct can sometimes become blocked or fail to develop properly, resulting in tears overflowing and potentially staining the face below the eye. The clinical signs, diagnosis, and treatment options for the condition are explained in this handout.

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Lacrimal Duct Obstruction in Cats

The lacrimal duct is part of the nasolacrimal system, a series of narrow tubes that allow tears to drain from the eye into the nose and mouth. This duct can sometimes become blocked or fail to develop properly, resulting in tears overflowing and potentially staining the face below the eye. The clinical signs, diagnosis, and treatment options for the condition are explained in this handout.

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Lymphoma in Dogs

Lymphoma is a cancer of the lymph nodes and lymphatic system. This cancer may be localized to one particular region, or may spread throughout the entire body. Lymphoma is a relatively common cancer, accounting for 15-20% of new cancer diagnoses in dogs. The prognosis for lymphoma varies, depending on various characteristics that can only be determined by specialized testing.

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Anticoagulant Rodenticide Poisoning in Cats

Anticoagulant rodenticides are poisons used to kill mice, rats, and other rodents by preventing blood clotting. Poisoning occurs when a cat ingests rodenticide. Anticoagulant rodenticides cause excessive bleeding by interfering with vitamin K1 recycling in the body. Vitamin K1 is needed for the body to make certain clotting factors which enable blood to clot and help to control bleeding.

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Anticoagulant Rodenticide Poisoning in Dogs

Anticoagulant rodenticide is used to kill mice, rats, and other pests. Poisoning occurs when a dog ingests rodenticide accidentally. Anticoagulant rodenticides causes excessive bleeding by interfering with vitamin K1 recycling in the body. Vitamin K1 is needed for the body to make certain clotting factors which enable blood to clot and help control bleeding.

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Ibuprofen Poisoning in Dogs

Ibuprofen is a commonly used NSAID and is used to treat fever, pain, and inflammation in humans. Ibuprofen poisoning occurs when a dog ingests a toxic dose of ibuprofen, either through misuse or by accident. Most commonly in dogs, clinical signs related to irritation and ulceration of the gastrointestinal tract are observed including decreased appetite, vomiting (sometimes with blood), diarrhea, depression, abdominal pain, dark tarry stools, and bloody stools.

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Ibuprofen Poisoning in Cats

Ibuprofen is a commonly used NSAID and is used to treat fever, pain, and inflammation in humans. Ibuprofen poisoning occurs when a cat ingests a toxic dose of ibuprofen, either through misuse or by accident. Ibuprofen poisoning causes many different clinical signs because many different organ systems can be affected. Most commonly, cats show signs related to kidney problems.

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Toad Poisoning in Dogs

Toad poisoning occurs when a dog is exposed to the toxins secreted by certain species of toads. The two most common species of toads that cause poisoning in the United States are the cane or marine toad and the Colorado River or Sonoran desert toad. While there are toads in Canada that secrete toxic substances, their effects are much less severe than the toxins secreted by the cane or Sonoran desert toads. Death can occur quickly and immediate treatment is required.

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Muscle Tears in Dogs

Muscle tears are direct or indirect traumatic injuries that cause damage to the architecture of the muscle tissue. The most common cause is an indirect injury, or strain, caused by overstretching during athletic activities, such as running or jumping. Clinical signs of muscle tears include pain on palpation of the injured area, lameness or limping, swelling of the muscle, and/or bruising. Muscle tears are treated immediately with rest, cold compresses, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to reduce pain, swelling, and inflammation. In the most severe cases, surgery is likely required.

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Muscle Tears in Cats

Muscle tears are direct or indirect traumatic injuries that cause damage to the architecture of the muscle tissue. The most common cause is an indirect injury, or strain, caused by overstretching during athletic activities, such as running or jumping. Clinical signs of muscle tears include pain on palpation of the injured area, lameness or limping, swelling of the muscle, and/or bruising. Muscle tears are treated immediately with rest, cold compresses, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to reduce pain, swelling, and inflammation. In the most severe cases, surgery is likely required.

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Infertility in Male Dogs

Infertility in a male dog is defined as the inability to produce a successful pregnancy in a fertile female, even with multiple breedings near the time of ovulation. The causes of infertility fall under three broad categories: failure to copulate or ejaculate, poor semen quality, and prostatic disease. This handout explains the possible causes in detail, as well as methods to diagnose and treat them.

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Infertility in Female Dogs

Infertility in a female dog is defined as the inability to conceive and deliver viable puppies, even when mated multiple times with a known fertile male surrounding the time of ovulation. This handout outlines the varying causes of infertility in female dogs and how they may be diagnosed and treated.

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Infertility in Female Cats

Infertility in a queen (an intact female cat) is defined as the inability to give birth to live kittens, despite appropriate breeding with a fertile male.This handout provides an outline of common causes of infertility along with how they are diagnosed and, when possible, treated.

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Infertility in Male Cats

Male infertility refers to the inability of a sexually mature tomcat (intact male cat) to impregnate a fertile female. This handout explains the possible causes of infertility in male cats as well as how they may be diagnosed and, when possible, treated.

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Shaker Syndrome in Dogs

Shaker syndrome is a condition involving generalized head and body tremors in dogs. The condition is often seen in small-breed, white dogs, although dogs of any size and color may be affected. The cause is unknown, but thought to be autoimmune due to its response to treatment with steroids.

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Botulism in Dogs

Dogs are exposed to botulism by eating raw meat or dead animals containing botulinum toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum. Botulism causes ascending paralysis of the nervous system. Clinical signs are reviewed as well as diagnostic tests and treatment. Prognosis is guarded depending on the amount of toxin ingested and the degree of supportive care available. There is no vaccine.

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Lymphoma in Cats

Lymphoma is a cancer of the lymphocytes. Lymphocytes are cells that are involved in the immune system. Feline lymphoma most commonly affects the intestines; therefore, clinical signs of lymphoma are often similar to other intestinal diseases. Diagnosing lymphoma requires finding cancerous cells on microscopic examination. This cancer cannot be prevented, but the likelihood of a cat developing lymphoma can be decreased by preventing feline leukemia virus infection.

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Botulism in Cats

Cats are exposed to botulism by eating raw meat or dead animals containing botulinum toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum. Botulism causes ascending paralysis of the nervous system. Clinical signs are reviewed as well as diagnostic tests and treatment. Prognosis is guarded depending on the amount of toxin ingested and the degree of supportive care available. There is no vaccine.

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Tetanus in Dogs

Tetanus is a medical condition caused by a toxin. This toxin, produced by the bacteria Clostridium tetani, affects the nerves, spinal cord and brain, leading to hyperexcitability resulting in muscle spasms. Dogs are less susceptible to the effects of tetanus toxin than humans and horses. Tetanus is typically diagnosed based on exam findings. Dogs with tetanus require intensive nursing care. Most dogs develop localized, self-limiting disease, which will respond to appropriate early treatment.

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Blood Transfusion Reactions in Cats

A transfusion reaction is a medical reaction that occurs in response to a blood transfusion. Many transfusion reactions occur acutely, within seconds of starting the transfusion up to 48 hours post-transfusion. In other cases, however, transfusion reactions may be delayed. In many cases, a transfusion reaction can be diagnosed based on clinical signs alone. Your veterinarian will then administer medications specific to the type of reaction that your cat is experiencing.

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Blood Transfusion Reactions in Dogs

A transfusion reaction is a medical reaction that occurs in response to a blood transfusion. Many transfusion reactions occur acutely, within seconds of starting the transfusion up to 48 hours post-transfusion. In other cases, however, transfusion reactions may be delayed. In many cases, a transfusion reaction can be diagnosed based on clinical signs alone. Your veterinarian will then administer medications specific to the type of reaction that your dog is experiencing.

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Von Willebrand's Disease in Cats

Von Willebrand's disease is an inherited bleeding disorder. Cats with von Willebrand's disease lack von Willebrand's factor, a blood protein that helps platelets adhere to sites of blood vessel injury. Although affected cats have normal platelets, they experience clotting difficulties because their platelets do not properly adhere to injury sites.

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Atopic Dermatitis (Atopy) in Cats

This handout discusses atopic dermatitis (atopy), a form of allergic skin disease brought on by an abnormal response to allergens in the environment. The clinical signs, diagnosis, and treatment are outlined.

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Food Allergies in Cats

Food allergy refers to an allergic reaction to a protein found within food. Food allergies can develop at any time during a cat's life, typically causing chronic, year-round itching and skin inflammation. Affected cats may develop recurrent infections of both the skin and ears. Food allergies are diagnosed by performing a food trial and managed through the long-term feeding of a food that does not trigger an allergic reaction.

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Chediak-Higashi Syndrome in Cats

Chediak-Higashi syndrome is a rare genetic disease of smoke-blue Persian cats. This condition affects how the body's cells process waste, leading to changes within the cells and abnormal pigmentation of the skin and coat. Cats with Chediak-Higashi syndrome also tend to have eye abnormalities. The most significant effect of Chediak-Higashi syndrome in cats is increased bleeding, caused by abnormal platelet function, though some cats may also show signs of a weakened immune system. Most cats with Chediak-Higashi syndrome do not require treatment for this condition.

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Discospondylitis

Discospondylitis is a bacterial or fungal infection of the intervertebral disks and the adjacent vertebral bone. This infection may reach the intervertebral disk via one of three routes: hematogenous (blood borne), direct contamination, or migrating foreign body. Discospondylitis can often be diagnosed based on X-rays, but advanced imaging and other diagnostic tests may be required. Treatment and prognosis depend on the causative organism.

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Sudden Acquired Retinal Degeneration Syndrome (SARDS)

Sudden acquired retinal degeneration syndrome (SARDS) causes blindness in older dogs, most often females. The underlying cause of SARDS is unknown and there is no effective treatment for the condition. This handout explains the clinical signs observed in affected dogs, how the condition is diagnosed, and how to support a dog with SARDS.

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Prostatic Disease in Cats

Diseases of the prostate is extremely rare in the cat and very little is known about them. Very few documented cases of prostate cancer have been noted with mixed success on treatment.

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Vulvoplasty (Episioplasty)

Vulvoplasty, also known as episioplasty, is a surgical procedure that your veterinarian may recommend to correct a conformational issue known as a recessed vulva. Your veterinarian will remove a crescent-shaped piece of tissue from above the vulva, allowing the skin to be pulled upwards into a more normal conformation. This procedure is performed under general anesthesia. Your pet will be intubated with an endotracheal tube. After surgery, you will need to give pain medications and antibiotics as directed and keep your dog confined/restricted for approximately two weeks. Skin sutures, if used, can typically be removed 10-14 days after surgery.

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Recessed Vulva

A recessed vulva, also referred to as a juvenile or hypoplastic vulva, is a conformational issue that occurs in female dogs. In this condition, the vulva is recessed within, or partially hidden by, surrounding folds of skin. Some dogs might have a recessed vulva for their entire life without ever experiencing any visible effects. In other dogs, however, a recessed vulva can predispose them to vaginitis and/or urinary tract infections. A recessed vulva is typically diagnosed based on a physical exam by your veterinarian, but additional testing may be necessary to determine what effects the recessed vulva is having on your pet’s health. Depending on the severity of your dog’s clinical signs, medical or surgical options may be used to treat this condition.

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Pleural Effusion in Dogs

Pleural effusion refers to the abnormal accumulation of fluid within the chest cavity. The fluid is not found within the lungs, but instead within the pleural sac, essentially meaning the lungs are floating in a chest that is full of fluid. There are several causes, including chylothorax, heart failure, and lung or chest tumors. Dogs presenting for pleural effusion are often experiencing shortness of breath and decreased oxygen intake; placing them into an oxygen cage provides some degree of immediate relief. Removing the fluid that surrounds the lungs will allow the dog to breathe more readily and this fluid can then be tested to identify the cause of the pleural effusion. The treatment and prognosis vary depending on the underlying cause.

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Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (Shock Lung) in Dogs

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a life-threatening complication of critical illness. These underlying critical illnesses may include sepsis, pancreatitis, pneumonia (either due to an infection or the inhalation of foreign materials), trauma, near-drowning, and other severe illnesses. In ARDS, massive inflammation and the release of various inflammatory chemicals leads to the leaking of capillaries within the lungs. Signs of ARDS include increased respiratory rate, blue discoloration to skin and mucous membranes due to poor oxygen delivery, and occasionally coughing. Treatment of ARDS is primarily focused on supportive care and addressing the underlying critical illness.

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Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (Shock Lung) in Cats

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a life-threatening complication of critical illness. These underlying critical illnesses may include sepsis, pancreatitis, pneumonia (either due to an infection or the inhalation of foreign materials), trauma, near-drowning, and other severe illnesses. In ARDS, massive inflammation and the release of various inflammatory chemicals leads to the leaking of capillaries within the lungs. Signs of ARDS include increased respiratory rate, blue discoloration to skin and mucous membranes due to poor oxygen delivery, and occasionally coughing. Treatment of ARDS is primarily focused on supportive care and addressing the underlying critical illness.

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Endocarditis in Cats

Endocarditis is an infection of a heart valve, most often affecting the mitral or aortic valve. It can arise any time that bacteria enter the bloodstream, though it is more common when the heart valve has already been damaged for some other reason. The clinical signs of endocarditis are often nonspecific in the early stages, but may progress to include signs of heart failure later in the course of the disease. The diagnosis and treatment of endocarditis can present a challenge, requiring multiple tests and prolonged courses of antibiotic therapy.

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Aortic Stenosis in Cats

Aortic stenosis is a heart disease that is present at birth. Cats affected with aortic stenosis have a narrowing at the aortic valve of the heart. The clinical signs of aortic stenosis vary depending on how severe the stenosis is; some cats remain asymptomatic throughout their life, while other cats begin showing clinical signs at an early age and can experience sudden death. The treatment of aortic stenosis depends upon the severity of the condition.

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Follicular Conjunctivitis

Follicular conjunctivitis is an eye condition that primarily affects young dogs, under 18 months of age. Follicular conjunctivitis is often caused by allergens, such as dust, grass, and weeds. As the immune cells within the conjunctiva are stimulated by allergens or other irritants, the lymphoid follicles enlarge, forming raised swellings. These swellings can contribute to further inflammation of the eye. Mild cases of follicular conjunctivitis do not require treatment. If your dog’s eye is uncomfortable, treatment may include saline rinses, topical steroids, and possible debridement.

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Pyothorax in Dogs

Pyothorax occurs when pus or inflammatory fluids collect in the space around the lungs causing fever, anorexia, lethargy, and difficulty breathing. It is diagnosed through history, physical exam, radiographs, and thoracocentesis. Treatment with oral antibiotics is essential and may involve repeated thoracocentesis or the placement of a chest drain.

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Pericardial Effusion in Cats

Pericardial effusion refers to the abnormal accumulation of fluid in the sac surrounding the heart. Pericardial effusion can have a number of underlying causes, including inflammation, infection, cancer, and hereditary defects. Mild cases of pericardial effusion may be asymptomatic, but more significant fluid accumulations can interfere with the heart’s function and lead to severe effects such as sudden death. Treatment and prognosis is dependent upon the underlying cause of the condition.

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Veterinary Care for Mini-Pigs

Just like other pets, mini-pigs should have a complete veterinary check-up after they are acquired and then annually after that. Your pig may need to be sedated for examination. Your veterinarian will determine the vaccines that are advisable for your pig, based on your pig's potential exposure to pathogens, breeding status, and geographic location. An analysis of your pig's feces should be performed annually to check for gastrointestinal parasites. Pet pigs should be screened for mites through a skin scraping. Veterinarians also will often help pig owners with hoof care and tusk trimming. Neutering of males and spaying of females is recommended for all pigs.

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Burns in Dogs

A burn is a type of skin injury, commonly caused by heat, fire, or chemicals. Burns are classified based on how many layers of skin are affected; this classification scheme can help predict prognosis. Treatment of burns varies, depending on the severity of the burn and how much of the body is affected. Superficial burns may heal without treatment, while more severe burns may require hospitalization and possible skin grafts.

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Hyperlipidemia

Hyperlipidemia refers to elevated levels of lipids (fats) in the bloodstream. There are several possible causes of hyperlipidemia: postprandial, medication-induced, hereditary, and secondary or acquired. Treatment centers on correcting underlying conditions (if possible), feeding a low-fat diet, and possible administration of supplements and medications.

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Addison's Disease in Cats

Addison’s disease, also known as hypoadrenocorticism, is a condition in which the adrenal glands do not produce enough glucocorticoids (steroids) and is considered rare in cats. When normal adrenal gland tissue is destroyed, cats often have a history of waxing and waning periods of lethargy, decreased appetite, and weight loss.

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Corneal Lipidosis

Corneal lipidosis is an accumulation of fatty substances within the cornea. This is caused by genetics (corneal dystrophy), eye inflammation (corneal degeneration), or by an increase in circulating lipids in the body (hyperlipidemia). Visually, lipidosis appears as a sparkly or shiny area of the cornea. It is diagnosed by a thorough eye exam, bloodwork, and patient history. Treatment and prognosis will depend on the cause and may include treatment of underlying inflammatory conditions of the eye, or systemic treatment of elevated lipid blood levels.

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Seasonal Flank Alopecia

Seasonal flank alopecia is a skin condition of dogs, in which affected dogs lose patches of hair on a seasonal basis. Although the cause of this condition has not been definitively determined, it is thought to be caused by an abnormal response of the hair follicles to the normal hormonal changes that occur with changing day length. This condition is purely cosmetic; therefore, no treatment is necessary. Melatonin can be used to speed hair regrowth and prevent hair loss in dogs that develop this condition on a recurrent basis.

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Meningitis in Cats

Meningitis refers to inflammation of the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. Causes include bacterial infection, viral infection, fungal infection, protozoal infection, aberrant parasite migration, or immune-mediated disease. A CSF tap is the most accurate way to diagnose meningitis, though CT and MRI may also be beneficial. Treatment and prognosis vary, depending upon the underlying cause.

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Meningitis in Dogs

This handout discusses meningitis, an inflammation of the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord, in dogs. The numerous potential causes, along with the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of the condition are outlined.

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Polycystic Kidney Disease in Dogs

Polycystic kidney disease is an inherited kidney disease that is common in cats, but uncommon in dogs. Dogs with polycystic kidney disease develop multiple fluid-filled cysts within the kidney, with the number and size of these cysts increasing with age. As the kidney cysts displace larger and larger amounts of functioning kidney tissue, the dog begins to show signs of chronic kidney disease. There is no specific treatment for polycystic kidney disease; treatment is centered on alleviating the signs of chronic kidney disease.

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Xanthine Bladder Stones in Dogs

Xanthine bladder stones are an uncommon type of urinary stone that can occur in both dogs and cats. Xanthine is produced when certain types of proteins are broken down within the body; while most dogs further breakdown xanthine to other substances that are more easily excreted, some pets are deficient in an enzyme that is required for this breakdown to occur. These pets develop elevated levels of xanthine in the urine, resulting in xanthine stones forming within the urinary tract. Xanthine urinary tract stones are typically removed surgically. Affected dogs require long-term care to prevent recurrence of xanthine urinary tract stones.

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Xanthine Bladder Stones in Cats

Xanthine bladder stones are an uncommon type of urinary stone that can occur in both dogs and cats. Xanthine is produced when certain types of proteins are broken down within the body; while most cats further breakdown xanthine to other substances that are more easily excreted, some pets are deficient in an enzyme that is required for this breakdown to occur. These pets develop elevated levels of xanthine in the urine, resulting in xanthine stones forming within the urinary tract. Xanthine urinary tract stones are typically removed surgically. Affected cats require long-term care to prevent recurrence of xanthine urinary tract stones.

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Cataracts in Cats

A cataract is an increase in the opacity of the lens of the eye. There are many potential causes of cataracts because any type of damage to the lens can lead to a cataract. The clinical signs of cataracts vary significantly, depending on the size of the cataract; many cataracts are asymptomatic at the time they are diagnosed during a veterinary exam. The ideal treatment for cataracts is surgery, but not all cats are candidates for surgical treatment. In these cases, anti-inflammatory medications may be used to prevent glaucoma and other secondary complications of cataracts.

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Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)

SARS-CoV-2 is a new type of coronavirus that has not previously been identified. This virus is not the same coronavirus that can cause the common cold in humans, nor is it the same as canine coronavirus (CCoV). At this time, there is no evidence that any animal or pet can infect humans with the new coronavirus. Because this is a new virus and information is still being collected, as a precaution, restrict contact with your pets if you are diagnosed with COVID-19. Currently, a vaccine for this new SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus is not available.

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Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)

SARS-CoV-2 is a new type of coronavirus that has not previously been identified. This virus is not the same coronavirus that can cause the common cold in humans, nor is it the same as canine coronavirus (CCoV). At this time, there is no evidence that any animal or pet can infect humans with the new coronavirus. Because this is a new virus and information is still being collected, as a precaution, restrict contact with your pets if you are diagnosed with COVID-19. Currently, a vaccine for this new SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus is not available.

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Telemedicine and How it Works

Telemedicine is defined as the act of practicing medicine at a distance. Telemedicine can be offered in a number of different ways: telephone calls, text messaging, online chat, email consultations, and visits conducted through videoconferencing programs. Telemedicine is not appropriate for every concern, such as a pet hit by a car; however, a number of common veterinary complaints can be addressed via telemedicine (e.g., flea allergies, minor limping, mild diarrhea). While it is impossible to perform a complete, comprehensive exam during a telemedicine appointment, in many cases your veterinarian can gather enough information to arrive at a reasonable diagnosis and start treatment. If your veterinarian determines that your pet requires in-person care, your veterinarian can help you determine when and where your pet should be seen and may be able to give you an idea of what to expect during the in-person veterinary visit.

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Preparing for Your Telemedicine Appointment

Telemedicine is the act of practicing medicine from a distance and your appointment will be conducted by a licensed veterinarian. Before your appointment, gather information on your pet’s history and your current concern. Look at a calendar and write down a timeline of your pet’s problems. Be prepared to answer questions that you would normally be asked at an in-person appointment. Write notes to help you remember everything. Most telemedicine appointments involve the use of some type of video chat. Conduct your visit in a quiet area with good lighting and have your pet with you before the call starts. Not all concerns can be addressed through telemedicine. If your veterinarian is unable to arrive at a diagnosis via telemedicine, he or she can help you determine the next step for your pet to ensure that he or she receives optimal care.

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Bowel Incontinence in Cats

Bowel incontinence refers to the loss of the ability to control bowel movements. There are two broad causes of fecal incontinence: reservoir incontinence and sphincter incontinence. In reservoir incontinence, intestinal disease interferes with the rectum’s ability to store normal volumes of feces. In sphincter incontinence, a structural or neurologic lesion prevents the anal sphincter from closing normally. Clinical signs, diagnostic testing, and treatment vary based upon the underlying cause.

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Bowel Incontinence in Dogs

Bowel incontinence refers to the loss of the ability to control bowel movements. There are two broad causes of fecal incontinence: reservoir incontinence and sphincter incontinence. In reservoir incontinence, intestinal disease interferes with the rectum’s ability to store normal volumes of feces. In sphincter incontinence, a structural or neurologic lesion prevents the anal sphincter from closing normally. Clinical signs, diagnostic testing, and treatment vary based upon the underlying cause.

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Leaky Gut Syndrome in Dogs

Leaky gut syndrome refers to an increase in the permeability of the intestines. This condition may be caused by any significant insult to the intestines. Acute cases of leaky gut may be caused by infection, trauma, toxins, or medication overdoses. Chronic cases, in contrast, may be caused by food allergies, long-term NSAID use, or other causes. Your veterinarian will perform diagnostic tests to determine the underlying cause of your dog’s intestinal disease and treatments will be targeted at the specific underlying disease that is causing your dog’s leaky gut.

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Leaky Gut Syndrome in Cats

Leaky gut syndrome refers to an increase in the permeability of the intestines. This condition may be caused by any significant insult to the intestines. Acute cases of leaky gut may be caused by infection, trauma, toxins, or medication overdoses. Chronic cases, in contrast, may be caused by food allergies, long-term NSAID use, or other causes. Your veterinarian will perform diagnostic tests to determine the underlying cause of your cat’s intestinal disease and treatments will be targeted at the specific underlying disease that is causing your cat’s leaky gut.

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Oxalate Bladder Stones in Cats

Oxalate bladder stones are composed of a mineral called calcium oxalate. Over the past 40 years the incidence over oxalate bladder stones has increased in cats. Cats are more likely to develop oxalate stones when their urine contains high levels of calcium and oxalate. In some cases, this is also associated with high blood calcium levels. Additionally, a low urine pH promotes the formation of oxalate stones. Bladder stones can cause significant inflammation and irritation of the bladder wall. Signs may include frequent urination, straining to urinate, blood in the urine, and urinating outside of the litterbox. Treatment of oxalate stones usually requires surgical removal, known as a cystotomy or less commonly may be removed via a process known as cystoscopy. Your cat will require ongoing management.

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AskVCA: How Can I Tell If My Cat Is Overweight?

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AskVCA: Does My Dog Have Diabetes?

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AskVCA: Does My Cat Have Diabetes?

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Struvite Bladder Stones in Cats

Struvite bladder stones are one of the most common bladder stones in cats. In some cats, struvite bladder stones form as a result of a urinary tract infection. Signs of bladder stones typically include frequent urination, straining to urinate, blood in the urine, and urinating outside of the litterbox. If your cat is having urinary issues, your veterinarian will first recommend a urinalysis. Blood tests, abdominal radiographs, and ultrasound may also be recommended. Medical dissolution and surgical removal are two categories of treatment. Cats who have developed struvite bladder stones are likely to experience a recurrence later in life, unless the conditions that led to the formation of stones can be corrected.

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Egg Yolk Peritonitis in Backyard Chickens

Egg yolk peritonitis is commonly diagnosed in laying hens when yolk from a developing egg or an incompletely shelled or ruptured egg is deposited within the body cavity rather than passing normally from the ovary, into the oviduct, and then out of the body as a fully shelled egg. The yolk material that is released into the coelomic cavity causes inflammation of the peritoneum and typically the development of fluid within the coelom. Affected birds will often stop laying, become less active, have distended abdomens, and have difficulty breathing. Veterinarians diagnose egg yolk peritonitis through a combination of physical examination findings, blood testing, and imaging with radiographs or ultrasound. Treatment is supportive, with supplemental feeding, anti-inflammatory medication, antibiotics, hormones to prevent further egg laying. With more advanced cases, oxygen therapy and fluid drainage from the abdomen may be necessary.

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AskVCA: Should I Have This Bump Checked Out On My Dog?

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Fever of Unknown Origin in Dogs

To be classified as a fever of unknown origin (FUO), the body temperature must be above 103.5°F (39.7°C) for longer than a few days in duration, with no obvious underlying cause based on history and physical examination. A fever is beneficial to the body, but if a fever remains above 106°F (41.1°C) for more than a few days several consequences occur within the body and can be life threatening. If your pet has a fever, your veterinarian will perform a thorough physical examination, perform diagnostic blood tests, urine culture, and possibly other diagnostic tests including imaging, cytology, blood cultures, and fecal cultures. The diagnostic work-up for FUO may be quite involved. Antibiotics are often prescribed to treat any underlying bacterial infection or to prevent bacterial infections from occurring as a secondary problem. Dogs that have persistent fever or a fever that waxes and wanes must undergo a thorough work-up so that the cause of fever can be discovered and treated before irreversible damage occurs.

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Carpal Hyperextension in Dogs

Carpal hyperextension is an abnormality of the carpus that causes increased extension of the joint. There are many causes of carpal hyperextension: it can be caused by trauma; in young dogs it may be caused by a developmental abnormality; and in older dogs it may occur as a degenerative condition. Dogs with carpal hyperextension have a noticeable bend at the wrist, forcing their lower limb into an abnormally flattened position. If carpal hyperextension is caused by trauma, it may also be associated with pain and swelling. A tentative diagnosis of carpal hyperextension can be made based on initial observation, but a thorough physical examination is necessary because dogs with carpal hyperextension may also have abnormalities in other joints. Treatment of carpal hyperextension depends upon the cause and severity of the condition and can range from medical management to surgery.

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Carpal Hyperextension in Cats

Carpal hyperextension is an abnormality of the carpus (wrist) that causes increased extension of the joint. Carpal hyperextension in cats is typically caused by trauma. Cats can also develop carpal hyperextension in association with other systemic diseases (e.g., inflammatory arthritis, diabetes mellitus, electrolyte abnormalities). Cats with carpal hyperextension have a noticeable bend at the wrist, forcing their foot into an abnormally flattened position. If carpal hyperextension is caused by trauma, it may also be associated with pain and swelling. A tentative diagnosis of carpal hyperextension can be made based on initial observation, but a thorough physical examination is necessary because cats with carpal hyperextension may also have abnormalities in other joints. X-rays and other additional tests may be recommended. Treatment of carpal hyperextension depends upon the severity of the condition and may involve surgery.

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Hypokalemia (Low Potassium Levels) in Dogs

Hypokalemia is a term that refers to a low blood concentration of potassium. Potassium is an important electrolyte within the body and is vital for the normal function of muscles and nerves. Mild to moderate hypokalemia often does not cause clinical sigs, but severe hypokalemia can result in generalized muscle weakness, lack of appetite, and some dogs may become constipated. The underlying cause of hypokalemia is often chronic kidney failure. Hypokalemia and its associated clinical signs may be quickly corrected by potassium supplementation. Depending on the cause, it may be necessary to continue supplementing potassium permanently.

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Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) in Non-Brachycephalic Dogs

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a chronic condition in which stomach acid flows from the stomach to the esophagus. In dogs with GERD, stomach acid passes through the lower esophageal sphincter and enters the esophagus. Possible signs associated with GERD include decreased appetite, difficulty swallowing, licking the lips, change in bark, chronic cough, appearance of generalized discomfort, pacing, or restlessness at night. Gastrointestinal reflux disease is often diagnosed on the basis of endoscopy. There are a number of different treatments for GERD. Most dogs require a combination of treatments, each of which addresses the problem in a different way. Most dogs experience a rapid improvement in clinical signs with treatment.

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Shar-Pei Recurrent Fever Syndrome

Shar-Pei recurrent fever syndrome is a hereditary condition that affects nearly one in four Shar-Pei dogs. Affected dogs experience recurrent episodes of fever and inflammation, with no identifiable underlying cause. Inflammatory cytokines released during fever episodes contribute to the production of a protein called amyloid which is then deposited in a variety of internal organs, resulting in a condition known as amyloidosis. Signs that may accompany the fever episodes include swelling of the hocks and muzzle, abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhea. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are often prescribed to reduce fever and alleviate discomfort. Colchicine is the drug of choice for the long-term treatment. Affected dogs can often be managed, but the condition will affect them for the remainder of their lives. If your dog is already showing signs of chronic kidney disease, your veterinarian will also develop a treatment plan to address the kidney disease.

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Carpal Laxity in Kittens

Carpal laxity is a condition in which the carpus has an abnormal or excessive range of motion. Carpal laxity can show up in one of two ways: carpal hyperextension or carpal flexion. The underlying cause of carpal laxity has not been definitively determined but may be caused by nutritional factors, genetic factors, and being raised on slippery flooring surfaces. Signs of carpal laxity may be seen at any time from 6 weeks of age onward, but the condition is most commonly noted between three and six months of age. Activity modification is often recommended for affected kittens by keeping them off slippery surfaces. Most kittens with carpal laxity will appear completely normal within six to eight weeks.

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Carpal Laxity in Puppies

Carpal laxity is a condition in which the carpus has an abnormal or excessive range of motion. Carpal laxity can show up in one of two ways: carpal hyperextension or carpal flexion. The underlying cause of carpal laxity has not been definitively determined but may be caused by nutritional factors (specifically excessive caloric intake and/or excessive calcium intake), genetic factors, and being raised on slippery flooring surfaces. Signs of carpal laxity may be seen at any time from 6 weeks of age onward, but the condition is most commonly noted between three and six months of age. Activity modification is often recommended for affected puppies by keeping them off slippery surfaces. Most puppies with carpal laxity will appear completely normal within six to eight weeks.

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Ectopic Ureters in Dogs

An ectopic ureter is an anatomical defect that is present at birth in some dogs. In a dog with ectopic ureters, the ureters do not attach to their normal location in the bladder.  

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Pneumothorax in Cats

Pneumothorax is an accumulation of air outside the lungs, but inside the chest wall. The air outside the lung prevents the lungs from inflating normally, and can lead to lung collapse. There are several variations of pneumothorax.

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Baylisascaris in Dogs

Baylisascaris procyonis, also known as the raccoon roundworm, is a parasite found in the intestinal tract of many raccoons. In some cases, this parasite may also spread to dogs and cats.

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Crystalluria in Cats

Crystalluria refers to the presence of crystals in the urine. These crystals are made up of minerals and other substances that would normally be dissolved in the urine; crystals form when these substances do not remain dissolved in the urine and instead coalesce into crystals. Crystalluria is diagnosed via urinalysis.

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Corkscrew tails

Corkscrew tail, also known as screw tail or ingrown tail, is a vertebral malformation that commonly occurs in certain dog breeds. Corkscrew tail is commonly observed in English Bulldogs, Pugs, Boston Terriers, and French Bulldogs, although it may also occur in other breeds. Corkscrew tail is an inherited condition. There is nothing that you can do to prevent your dog from developing corkscrew tail, but there are measures breeders can take to reduce the incidence of corkscrew tail in their litters.

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Serotonin Syndrome

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter produced by the body that regulates mood, sleep, body temperature, pain perception, blood vessel constriction, gastrointestinal function, and even blood clotting. An animal with serotonin syndrome experiences excessive effects of serotonin. This handout reviews the causes, diagnosis and treatment.

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Open Fontanelle in Small Breed Puppies

Open fontanelles are soft spots in the skull, or gaps between the skull’s growth plates. They can be normal in young puppies, especially small breeds, and typically close or harden by 9-12 weeks of age. This handout discusses causes, diagnosis and treatment of open fontanelles in small breed puppies.

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Salivary Mucocele

A salivary mucocele is an accumulation of saliva that has leaked from an injured salivary gland or duct. Some mucoceles cause swelling of the face and neck, while others interfere with a dog’s ability to swallow or breathe normally. Treatment typically requires surgical removal of the affected salivary gland(s).

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Trichobezoars in Cats

A trichobezoar, or hairball, can form when a pet ingests hair that does not pass through the intestinal tract. When this occurs, the hairball may be vomited up uneventfully or it may lead to a gastrointestinal obstruction. If a trichobezoar causes an obstruction, surgical management is necessary.

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Trichobezoars in Dogs

A trichobezoar, or hairball, can form when a dog ingests hair that does not pass through the intestinal tract. When this occurs, the hairball may be vomited up uneventfully or it may lead to a gastrointestinal obstruction. If a trichobezoar causes an obstruction, surgical management is necessary.

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Inguinal Hernias

A hernia occurs when a body part or internal organ protrudes through the wall of muscle or tissue meant to contain it. In the case of an inguinal hernia, these internal organs or structures have managed to make their way through the inguinal ring (an opening in the abdominal wall near the pelvis) to protrude into the groin area. The condition itself can be broadly classified as either acquired or congenital. In general, it is best to surgically repair an inguinal hernia at the time of diagnosis, as delaying can result in a more complicated and difficult procedure.

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Telmisartan

Telmisartan is an angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) used to treat high blood pressure in cats and off-label to treat kidney disease in both cats and dogs. This medication is given by mouth in the form of a liquid or tablet. It may be given with or without food but is better absorbed if given on an empty stomach. Side effects may include vomiting, diarrhea, lack of appetite, low blood pressure, and decreased energy. There are several drugs that can contribute to adverse effects when given with telmisartan. Be sure to tell your veterinarian about any medications (including vitamins, supplements, or herbal therapies) that your pet is taking. If you suspect an overdose or an adverse reaction to the medication, call your veterinary office immediately.

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Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia in Dogs

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia is a slowly progressing cancer of a type of white blood cell called a lymphocyte. It can develop at any age but is more typically detected in middle-aged to senior dogs. It also seems to be more prevalent in German Shepherds and Golden Retrievers. This disease is often asymptomatic and detected on routine lab screening. Further diagnostic procedures, as well as treatments and prognoses, are described in this handout.

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Hepatic Encephalopathy

Hepatic encephalopathy is a neurologic condition in cats and dogs that is caused by an underlying liver condition. It can cause lethargy, seizures, problems with balance and coordination, and coma. Common causes, methods to diagnose the condition, and its treatment options are explained in this handout.

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Hip Dislocation and Post-Operative Care in Dogs

The most common cause of hip dislocation is blunt force trauma such as a fall or an automobile injury. Most dogs with a hip dislocation will have severe hind limb lameness and pain and may not be able to put any weight on the affected limb. A diagnostic radiograph will show the direction of dislocation and whether a fracture of any part of the hip joint has occurred. In many cases, it is possible to replace the femoral head in the acetabulum by manipulation under general anesthesia. If the femoral head has been successfully replaced and the correct post-operative treatment has been adhered to, it is unlikely that the hip will dislocate again.

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